SUPREME
COURT OF CANADA
Between:
Trent Terrence
Sinclair
Appellant
and
Her Majesty The
Queen
Respondent
‑ and ‑
Attorney
General of Ontario, Director of Public Prosecutions of Canada,
Criminal
Lawyers’ Association of Ontario,
British
Columbia Civil Liberties Association
and
Canadian Civil Liberties Association
Interveners
Coram: McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel, Deschamps, Fish,
Abella, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ.
Reasons for
Judgment:
(paras. 1 to 75)
Dissenting
Reasons:
(paras. 76 to 122)
Dissenting
Reasons:
(paras. 123 to 227)
|
McLachlin C.J. and Charron J. (Deschamps, Rothstein and
Cromwell JJ. concurring)
Binnie J.
LeBel and Fish JJ. (Abella J.
concurring)
|
______________________________
R. v. Sinclair, 2010 SCC 35, [2010] 2 S.C.R. 310
Trent Terrence Sinclair Appellant
v.
Her Majesty The Queen Respondent
and
Director of
Public Prosecutions of Canada,
Attorney
General of Ontario, Criminal Lawyers’ Association
of Ontario,
British Columbia Civil Liberties Association
and Canadian Civil Liberties Association Interveners
Indexed as: R. v. Sinclair
2010 SCC 35
File No.: 32537.
2009: May 12; 2010: October 8.
Present: McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel,
Deschamps, Fish, Abella, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ.
on appeal from the court of appeal
for british columbia
Constitutional law — Charter of Rights — Right to
counsel — Custodial interrogation — Presence of counsel — Renewed opportunity
to consult counsel — Accused spoke to counsel of choice prior to police
interrogation — Repeated requests for further consultation — Incriminating
statements made during interrogation — Whether detainee who has been properly
accorded right to counsel at outset of detention has constitutional right to
further consultations with counsel during course of interrogation — Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s. 10 (b).
After being arrested for murder, S was advised of his
right to counsel, and twice spoke by telephone with a lawyer of his choice. He
was later interviewed by a police officer for several hours. S stated on a
number of occasions during the interview that he had nothing to say on matters
touching the investigation and wished to speak to his lawyer again. The
officer confirmed that S had the right to choose whether to talk or not,
however, he refused to allow S to consult with his lawyer again. He also told
S that he did not have the right to have his lawyer present during
questioning. The officer continued the conversation. In time, S implicated
himself in the murder. At the end of the interview, the police placed S into a
cell with an undercover officer. While in the cell, S made further
incriminating statements to that officer. S later accompanied the police to
the location where the victim had been killed and participated in a re‑enactment.
Following a voir dire, the trial judge ruled that the interview, the
statements to the undercover officer, and the re‑enactment were
admissible. The trial judge found that the Crown had proven their voluntariness
beyond a reasonable doubt, and that the police had not infringed S’s rights as
guaranteed by s. 10 (b) of the Charter . The Court of Appeal
agreed.
Held (Binnie,
LeBel, Fish and Abella JJ. dissenting): The appeal should be
dismissed.
Per McLachlin C.J. and
Deschamps, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ.: Section 10 (b)
of the Charter does not mandate the presence of defence counsel
throughout a custodial interrogation. Precedent is against this interpretation
and the language of s. 10 (b) does not appear to contemplate this
requirement. Moreover, the purpose of s. 10 (b) does not demand the
continued presence of counsel throughout the interview process. In most cases,
an initial warning, coupled with a reasonable opportunity to consult counsel
when the detainee invokes the right, satisfies s. 10 (b). However,
the police must give the detainee an additional opportunity to receive advice
from counsel where developments in the course of the investigation make this
necessary to serve the purpose underlying s. 10 (b).
In the context of a custodial interrogation, the purpose
of s. 10 (b) is to support detainees’ right to choose whether to
cooperate with the police investigation or not, by giving them access to legal
advice on the situation they are facing. This is achieved by requiring that
they be informed of the right to consult counsel and, if a detainee so
requests, that he or she be given an opportunity to consult counsel. Achieving
this purpose may require that the detainee be given an opportunity to reconsult
counsel where developments make this necessary, but it does not demand the
continued presence of counsel throughout the interview process. There is of
course nothing to prevent counsel from being present at an interrogation where
all sides consent, as already occurs. The police remain free to facilitate
such an arrangement if they so choose, and the detainee may wish to make
counsel’s presence a precondition of giving a statement.
A request to consult counsel, without more, is not
sufficient to retrigger the s. 10 (b) right. What is required is a
change in circumstances that suggests that the choice faced by the detainee has
been significantly altered, requiring further advice on the new situation, in
order to fulfill the purpose of s. 10 (b). Police tactics short of
such a change may result in the Crown being unable to prove beyond a reasonable
doubt that a subsequent statement was voluntary, rendering it inadmissible.
But it does not follow that the procedural rights granted by s. 10 (b)
have been breached.
Existing jurisprudence has recognized that changed
circumstances may result from: new procedures involving the detainee; a change
in the jeopardy facing the detainee; or reason to believe that the detainee may
not have understood the initial advice of the right to counsel. The categories
are not closed. However, additions to them should be developed only where
necessary to ensure that s. 10 (b) has achieved its purpose. The
change of circumstances must be objectively observable in order to trigger
additional implementational duties for the police. It is not enough for the
detainee to assert, after the fact, that he or she needed help, absent
objective indicators that renewed legal consultation was required to permit him
or her to make a meaningful choice as to whether to cooperate with the police
investigation or refuse to do so.
S does not appear to fall into any of the categories
where thus far a right to reconsultation has been recognized as necessary to
fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b). The question is therefore whether
the circumstances, viewed as a whole, indicate that S required further legal
advice in order to fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b). Developments
in the investigation that suggest that the detainee may be confused about his
choices and right to remain silent may trigger the right to a renewed
consultation with a lawyer under s. 10(b). That is not the case
here. It is clear from the trial judge’s findings of fact that S never had any
doubt about the choices the law allowed him and, in particular, his
constitutional right to remain silent. S twice spoke with counsel of his
choice. Both times, S told the police that he was satisfied with the call. At
the beginning of the interview, S said to the officer that he had been told
about some of the devices the police might use to obtain information from him,
including lying to him, and that he had been advised not to discuss anything
important with anyone. Later in the course of the interview, the police
repeatedly confirmed that it was his choice whether he wished to speak with
them or not. The police did not denigrate the legal advice he had received and
repeatedly confirmed that it was his choice whether he wished to speak or not.
There were no changed circumstances requiring renewed consultation with a
lawyer. No s. 10(b) Charter breach has therefore been
established.
This interpretation of s. 10(b) does not
give carte blanche to the police as contended. This argument overlooks
the requirement that confessions must be voluntary in the broad sense now
recognized by the law. The police must not only fulfill their obligations
under s. 10(b), they must conduct the interview in strict
conformity with the confessions rule. In defining the contours of the
s. 7 right to silence and related Charter rights, however,
consideration must also be given to the societal interest in the investigation
and solving of crimes. Any suggestion that the questioning of a suspect, in
and of itself, runs counter to the presumption of innocence and the protection
against self‑incrimination is clearly contrary to settled authority and
practice. The police are charged with the duty to investigate alleged crimes
and, in performing this duty, they necessarily have to make inquiries from
relevant sources of information, including persons suspected of, or even
charged with, committing the alleged crime. While the police must be
respectful of an individual’s Charter rights, a rule that would require
the police to automatically retreat upon a detainee stating that he or she has
nothing to say would not strike the proper balance between the public interest
in the investigation of crimes and the suspect’s interest in being left alone.
Per Binnie J.
(dissenting): A detainee is entitled to a further opportunity or opportunities
to receive advice from counsel during a custodial interview where his or her
request falls within the purpose of the s. 10(b) right (i.e. to
satisfy a need for legal assistance rather than delay or distraction), and such
request is reasonably justified by the objective circumstances that were or
ought to have been apparent to the police during the interrogation.
In this case, the initial refusal to allow S to consult
further with his counsel did not constitute a Charter breach. The
breach occurred when, after several hours or so of suggestions (subtle and not
so subtle) and argument, the officer confronted S with evidence linking him to
the crime and S repeated five times his desire to consult with his counsel
before going further. Police use of moral suasion is, of course, absolutely
acceptable, but S was clearly concerned (manifested by his five separate
requests to consult his lawyer again) whether the lawyer’s initial advice
(whatever it was) remained valid. S faced a second degree murder charge. It
cannot reasonably be said that the 360 seconds of legal advice he received in
two initial phone calls before the police began their interrogation was enough
to exhaust his s. 10 (b) guarantee. Given the unfolding of new
information up to that point in the interview, S’s request to speak again to
counsel was reasonable, and the police refusal of that further consultation was
a breach of s. 10 (b).
What now appears to be licenced as a result of the
“interrogation trilogy” — Oickle, Singh, and the present case —
is that an individual (presumed innocent) may be detained and isolated for
questioning by the police for at least five or six hours without reasonable
recourse to a lawyer, during which time the officers can brush aside assertions
of the right to silence or demands to be returned to his or her cell, in an
endurance contest in which the police interrogators, taking turns with one
another, hold all the important legal cards.
Communication between solicitor and client is the
condition precedent to the lawyer’s ability to assist. The advice will only be
as good as the information on which it is based. In the case of s. 10(b),
the lawyer cannot function effectively in an informational vacuum without the
possibility of even a general idea of the unfolding situation in the
interrogation room. Until aware of that situation, the lawyer may be in no
position to render — and the detainee may not receive — meaningful assistance
beyond what could be accomplished by a recorded message: “You have reached
counsel; keep your mouth shut; press one to repeat this message.” In this case,
the evolving situation produced information S’s lawyer needed to have to do his
job.
In any case, justification for additional
consultation(s) must find objective support in factors which would include (but
are not limited to): the extent of prior contact with counsel; the length of
the interview at the time of the request; the extent of other information (true
or false) provided by the police to the detainee about the case during the
interrogation, which may reasonably suggest to the detainee that the advice in
the initial consultation may have been overtaken by events; the existence of
exigent or urgent circumstances that militate against any delay in the
interrogation; whether an issue of a legal nature has arisen in the course of
the interrogation; and the mental and physical condition of the detainee to the
extent that this is or ought to be apparent to the interrogator.
The detainee’s s. 10 (b) request will be
dealt with in the first instance by the police. In deciding whether to give
effect to it the police will have to make a judgment call, but such a call is
no more difficult than many arising in the course of their work. The police
deal routinely with constitutional standards and other aspects of
reasonableness, and there is no reason why they should not be capable of
treating a demand for further consultation with counsel with the same level of
professionalism. No doubt, a truncated interpretation of s. 10 (b)
would be easier for the police to administer. Rights during an interrogation
will always be harder to administer than no rights. The Charter is
framed in general language. Litigation is inevitable. The criminal justice
system might well work more smoothly and efficiently from the crime‑stopper’s
perspective if we had no Charter , but so long as we do have a Charter,
s. 10 (b) like other Charter rights should be given a broad
interpretation consistent with its purpose. If it takes time to work out its
proper amplitude so be it.
Finally, S’s subsequent admissions to the undercover
officer in the jail cell were part of the same transaction or course of conduct
as the statement to the interrogation officer and were thus tainted, because
S’s reason for confessing in the jail cell was explicitly linked to the fact
that he had just given himself up in the interrogation room. The same is true
of the re‑enactment. Without the initial statement to the interrogation
officer, it would not have taken place. This causal connection is sufficient
to establish the requisite link. The statement to the undercover officer and
the evidence produced by the re‑enactment are linked to the earlier
breach of s. 10 (b) and were therefore obtained in breach of the Charter .
That evidence should be excluded under s. 24(2) in light of the general
presumption of exclusion of unconstitutionally obtained statements.
Per LeBel, Fish and
Abella JJ. (dissenting): S’s right to counsel was infringed because the police
prevented him from obtaining the legal advice to which he was entitled. His
access to legal advice would have mitigated the impact of the police’s
relentless and skilful efforts to obtain a confession from him. This breach of
S’s right to counsel went to the core of the self‑incrimination interest
that s. 10 (b) is meant to protect. Under our system of criminal
justice, the state bears the sole burden of proving the guilt of the accused.
This basic precept finds expression in the presumption of innocence and the
right to silence. Both rights are constitutionally protected. It follows
inexorably that a detainee under police control is under no obligation to
cooperate with a police investigation or to participate in an interrogation.
Both a straightforward reading and a purposive
interpretation of s. 10 (b) lend themselves to a broad conception of
the right to counsel. The guarantee of “l’assistance d’un avocat” means
more than a one‑time consultation with counsel, specifically when the
brief consultation is followed by a lengthy interrogation, conducted by a
skilled and experienced police interrogator.
The right to silence, the right against self‑incrimination,
and the presumption of innocence work together to ensure that suspects are
never obligated to participate in building the case against them. Confronted
by bits and pieces of incriminating evidence, conjectural or real, the detainee
may be wrongly persuaded that maintaining his or her right of silence is a
futile endeavour: that the advice to remain silent originally provided by
counsel is now unsound. Through ignorance of the consequences, the detainee may
feel bound to make an incriminatory statement to which the police are not by
law entitled. In what may seem counterintuitive to the detainee without legal
training, it is often better to remain silent in the face of the evidence
proffered, leaving it to the court to determine its cogency and admissibility,
and forego the inevitable temptation to end the interrogation by providing the
inculpatory statement sought by the interrogators. Access to counsel is
therefore of critical importance at this stage to ensure, insofar as possible,
that the detainee’s rights are respected and to provide the sense of security
that legal representation is intended to afford. However, it is also in
society’s interest that constitutional rights be respected at the pre‑trial
stage, as doing so ensures the integrity of the criminal process from start to
finish. In these circumstances, counsel’s advice is not simply a matter of
reiterating the detainee’s right to silence, but also to explain why and how
that right should be, and can be, effectively exercised.
The assistance of counsel is a right granted not only to
detainees under s. 10 (b) of the Charter , but a right granted
to every accused by the common law, the Criminal Code , and ss. 7
and 11 (d) of the Charter . It is not just a right to the
assistance of counsel, but to the effective assistance of counsel, and one that
this Court has characterized as a principle of fundamental justice. This right
has not been granted to suspects and to persons accused of crime on the
condition that it not be exercised when they are most in need of its protection
— notably at the stage of custodial interrogation, when they are particularly
vulnerable and in an acute state of jeopardy.
The right against self‑incrimination and the right
to silence cannot be eroded by an approach to criminal investigations, and in
particular to custodial interrogation, that would favour perceived police
efficiency at the expense of constitutionally protected rights. The right to counsel,
and by extension its meaningful exercise, cannot be made to depend on an
interrogator’s opinion as to its opportunity or utility. The police are not
empowered by the common law or by statute, and still less by our Constitution,
to prevent or undermine the effective exercise by detainees of either their
right to silence or their right to counsel, or to compel them against their
clearly expressed wishes to participate in interrogations until confession.
In this case, both S’s statement to the undercover
officer and his participation in the re‑enactment were inextricably
linked to his original confession and were therefore obtained in violation of
s. 10 (b) as well.
That evidence should be excluded pursuant to
s. 24(2) of the Charter . The violation of S’s constitutionally
guaranteed right to counsel was significant, and not merely a technical
breach. It is almost impossible to imagine a case where a Charter breach
would have a greater impact on the protected interests of an
individual. At a time when his freedom hung in the balance, S was denied
access to the legal counsel that he desperately required. As a direct result
of this unconstitutional deprivation, S relented in the face of unrelenting
questioning and incriminated himself. Had he been provided with an opportunity
to consult counsel, the outcome would likely have been very different. The
impact of the breach, therefore, struck at the core of our most cherished legal
protections: the right to silence and the protection against self‑incrimination.
Finally, the offence at issue here — murder — is of the utmost severity. So
too, however, is the right being protected. While society has an interest in
the adjudication of a case on its merits, sometimes, as is the case here, that
interest will be outweighed by the protection of the most fundamental rights in
the criminal justice system.
Accordingly, the evidence should be excluded pursuant to
s. 24(2) of the Charter .
Cases Cited
By McLachlin C.J. and Charron J.
Distinguished: R.
v. Singh, 2007 SCC 48, [2007] 3 S.C.R. 405; referred to: R.
v. Evans, [1991] 1 S.C.R. 869; R. v. Hebert, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 151; R.
v. Manninen, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 1233; R. v. Tremblay, [1987] 2 S.C.R.
435; R. v. Black, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 138; R. v. Friesen (1995), 101
C.C.C. (3d) 167; R. v. Mayo (1999), 133 C.C.C. (3d) 168; R. v. Ekman,
2000 BCCA 414, 146 C.C.C. (3d) 346; R. v. Osmond, 2007 BCCA 470, 227
C.C.C. (3d) 375, leave to appeal refused, [2008] 1 S.C.R. xii; Miranda v.
Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966); Escobedo v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 478
(1964); California v. Beheler, 463 U.S. 1121 (1983); Yarborough v.
Alvarado, 541 U.S. 652 (2004); R. v. Grant, 2009 SCC 32, [2009] 2
S.C.R. 353; Harris v. New York, 401 U.S. 222 (1971); Oregon v. Hass,
420 U.S. 714 (1975); United States v. Patane, 542 U.S. 630 (2004); R.
v. Calder, [1996] 1 S.C.R. 660; R. v. Noël, 2002 SCC 67, [2002] 3
S.C.R. 433; R. v. Logan (1988), 46 C.C.C. (3d) 354; R. v. Wood
(1994), 94 C.C.C. (3d) 193; R. v. Gormley (1999), 140 C.C.C. (3d) 110; R.
v. Baidwan, 2001 BCSC 1412, [2001] B.C.J. No. 3073 (QL), aff’d 2003
BCCA 351 (CanLII); R. v. Bohnet, 2003 ABCA 207, 111 C.R.R. (2d) 131; R.
v. Anderson, 2009 ABCA 67, 243 C.C.C. (3d) 134; R. v. Weeseekase,
2007 SKCA 115, 228 C.C.C. (3d) 117; R. v. R. (P.L.) (1988), 44 C.C.C.
(3d) 174; R. v. Badgerow, 2008 ONCA 605, 237 C.C.C. (3d) 107; R. v.
Burlingham, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 206; R. v. Prosper, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 236;
R. v. Willier, 2010 SCC 37, [2010] 2 S.C.R. 429; R. v. Ross,
[1989] 1 S.C.R. 3; R. v. Smith, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 368; R. v. Oickle,
2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3.
By Binnie J. (dissenting)
R. v. Phillion, 2009 ONCA
202, 241 C.C.C. (3d) 193; Clarkson v. The Queen, [1986] 1 S.C.R. 383; R.
v. Bartle, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 173; Dedman v. The Queen, [1985] 2 S.C.R.
2; R. v. Manninen, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 1233; R. v. Ross, [1989] 1
S.C.R. 3; R. v. Hebert, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 151; R. v. McClure, 2001
SCC 14, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 445; R. v. Oickle, 2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R.
3; R. v. Singh, 2007 SCC 48, [2007] 3 S.C.R. 405; Rothman v. The
Queen, [1981] 1 S.C.R. 640; R. v. Black, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 138; R.
v. Brydges, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 190; Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436
(1966); R. v. Smith, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 368; R. v. Collins, [1987] 1
S.C.R. 265; R. v. Clayton, 2007 SCC 32, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 725; R. v.
Waugh, 2010 ONCA 100, 251 C.C.C. (3d) 139; R. v. Waterfield, [1963]
3 All E.R. 659; R. v. Mann, 2004 SCC 52, [2004] 3 S.C.R. 59; R. v.
Suberu, 2009 SCC 33, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 460; R. v. Wittwer, 2008 SCC
33, [2008] 2 S.C.R. 235; R. v. Grant, 2009 SCC 32, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 353.
By LeBel and Fish JJ. (dissenting)
R. v. Singh, 2007 SCC 48,
[2007] 3 S.C.R. 405; R. v. Logan (1988), 46 C.C.C. (3d) 354; R. v.
Manninen, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 1233; R. v. Rowbotham (1988), 41 C.C.C.
(3d) 1; R. v. Collins, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 265; Woolmington v. Director
of Public Prosecutions, [1935] A.C. 462; R. v. P. (M.B.),
[1994] 1 S.C.R. 555; R. v. Oakes, [1986] 1 S.C.R. 103; Rothman v. The
Queen, [1981] 1 S.C.R. 640; R. v. Turcotte, 2005 SCC 50, [2005] 2
S.C.R. 519; R. v. Bartle, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 173; Fortin v. Chrétien,
2001 SCC 45, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 500; Lavallee, Rackel & Heintz v. Canada
(Attorney General), 2002 SCC 61, [2002] 3 S.C.R. 209; Andrews v. Law
Society of British Columbia, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 143; British Columbia
(Attorney General) v. Christie, 2007 SCC 21, [2007] 1 S.C.R. 873; R. v.
G.D.B., 2000 SCC 22, [2000] 1 S.C.R. 520; R. v. Smith, [1989] 2
S.C.R. 368; R. v. Oickle, 2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3; R. v. McCrimmon,
2010 SCC 36, [2010] 2 S.C.R. 402; R. v. Waterfield, [1963] 3 All E.R.
659; Dedman v. The Queen, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 2; R. v. Orbanski, 2005
SCC 37, [2005] 2 S.C.R. 3; R. v. Clayton, 2007 SCC 32, [2007] 2 S.C.R.
725; R. v. Kang‑Brown, 2008 SCC 18, [2008] 1 S.C.R. 456; R. v.
Yeh, 2009 SKCA 112, 337 Sask. R. 1; Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436
(1966); R. v. Charron (1990), 57 C.C.C. (3d) 248; R. v. Hebert,
[1990] 2 S.C.R. 151; R. v. Wittwer, 2008 SCC 33, [2008] 2 S.C.R. 235; R.
v. Grant, 2009 SCC 32, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 353; R. v. Harrison, 2009 SCC
34, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 494.
Statutes and Regulations Cited
Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms, ss. 1 , 7 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 24(2) .
Crimes Act 1914
(Austl.), Part IC, ss. 23G, 23L.
Criminal Code, R.S.C.
1985, c. C‑46, s. 684(1) .
Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (U.K.), 1994, c. 33.
Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act
2002 (N.S.W.), s. 123.
Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (U.K.), 1984, c. 60, ss. 58, 66.
Police Powers and
Responsibilities Act 2000 (Qld.).
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APPEAL from a judgment of the British Columbia Court of
Appeal (Hall, Lowry and Frankel JJ.A.), 2008 BCCA 127, 252 B.C.A.C. 288, 422
W.A.C. 288, 169 C.R.R. (2d) 232, [2008] B.C.J. No. 502 (QL), 2008
CarswellBC 573, affirming a decision of Powers J., 2003 BCSC 2040, [2003]
B.C.J. No. 3258 (QL), 2003 CarswellBC 3841. Appeal dismissed, Binnie,
LeBel, Fish and Abella JJ. dissenting.
Gil D. McKinnon,
Q.C., and Lisa J. Helps, for the appellant.
M. Joyce DeWitt‑Van
Oosten and Susan J. Brown, for the respondent.
David Schermbrucker and Christopher
Mainella, for the intervener the Director of Public Prosecutions of Canada.
John S. McInnes and Deborah
Krick, for the intervener the Attorney General of Ontario.
P. Andras Schreck
and Candice Suter, for the intervener the Criminal Lawyers’ Association
of Ontario.
Warren B. Milman
and Michael A. Feder, for the intervener the British Columbia Civil
Liberties Association.
Jonathan C. Lisus,
Alexi N. Wood and Adam Ship, for the intervener the Canadian
Civil Liberties Association.
The judgment of McLachlin C.J. and Deschamps, Charron,
Rothstein and Cromwell JJ. was delivered by
The Chief Justice and Charron J. —
I. Overview
[1]
This appeal and its companion cases are about the nature and limits of
the right to counsel under s. 10 (b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms . The issue is whether a detainee who has been properly
accorded his or her s. 10 (b) rights at the outset of the detention has
the constitutional right to further consultations with counsel during the
course of the interrogation.
[2]
We conclude that s. 10 (b) does not mandate the presence of
defence counsel throughout a custodial interrogation. We further conclude that
in most cases, an initial warning, coupled with a reasonable opportunity to
consult counsel when the detainee invokes the right, satisfies s. 10 (b).
However, the police must give the detainee an additional opportunity to receive
advice from counsel where developments in the course of the investigation make
this necessary to serve the purpose underlying s. 10(b) of providing the
detainee with legal advice relevant to his right to choose whether to cooperate
with the police investigation or not. To date, this principle has led to the
recognition of the right to a second consultation with a lawyer where changed
circumstances result from: new procedures involving the detainee; a change in
the jeopardy facing the detainee; or reason to believe that the first
information provided was deficient. The categories are not closed.
[3]
In this case, the test for a second legal consultation is not met.
Before the interview took place, Mr. Sinclair was advised of his right to
counsel and twice spoke with counsel of his choice. At the beginning of the
interview, he said to the officer that he had been told about some of the
devices the police might use to obtain information from him, including lying to
him, and that he had been advised not to discuss anything important with
anyone. Later in the course of the interview, the police repeatedly confirmed
that it was his choice whether he wished to speak with them or not. There were
no changed circumstances requiring renewed consultation with a lawyer. We
therefore conclude that breach of the right to counsel under s. 10 (b) of
the Charter has not been established, and would dismiss the appeal.
II. Facts
[4]
The appellant, Mr. Sinclair, was charged with second degree murder in
the November 21, 2002 killing of Gary Grice and ultimately convicted by a jury
of manslaughter. The events that concern us on this appeal took place following
Mr. Sinclair’s arrest early in the morning of Saturday, December 14, 2002, by
members of the RCMP detachment in Vernon, B.C.
[5]
Upon arrest, Mr. Sinclair was advised that he was being arrested for the
killing of Mr. Grice, that he had the right to retain and instruct counsel
without delay, that he could call any lawyer he wanted, and that a Legal Aid
lawyer would be available free of charge. When asked whether he wanted to call
a lawyer, Mr. Sinclair responded: “Not right this second” (A.R., at p. 524).
He was then taken to the RCMP detachment, with assurances that he would have
another opportunity to contact counsel once they got there.
[6]
After booking, Mr. Sinclair was again asked whether he wanted to
exercise his right to counsel. This time he told the officer, Cpl. Leibel, that
he wanted to speak with a lawyer named Victor S. Janicki, whom he had retained
to defend him on an unrelated charge. The police placed the call and the
appellant spoke with Mr. Janicki by phone in a private room for about three
minutes. Cpl. Leibel asked the appellant whether he was satisfied with the
call, to which Mr. Sinclair replied: “Yeah, he’s taking my case” (A.R., at p.
126).
[7]
About three hours later, Cpl. Leibel called Mr. Janicki to find out if
he was coming to the police station to meet with the appellant. Mr. Janicki
said he would not be attending at the station because he did not yet have a
Legal Aid retainer, but he asked to speak with the appellant again by phone.
Another three-minute phone call ensued, again with the appellant in a private
room. And again the appellant told Cpl. Leibel that he was satisfied with the
call.
[8]
Later that day, Mr. Sinclair was interviewed by Sgt. Skrine for
approximately five hours. Before the interview began, Sgt. Skrine confirmed
with Mr. Sinclair that he had been advised of and had exercised his right to
counsel. The officer also warned Mr. Sinclair that he did not have to say
anything and informed him that the interview was being recorded and could be
used in court. Shortly thereafter, as Sgt. Skrine began to ask the appellant
innocuous questions about his background and upbringing, Mr. Sinclair stated
that he had nothing to say “until my lawyer’s around and he tells me what’s
going on and stuff, like . . .” (Supp. A.R., at p. 3). Sgt. Skrine responded
“fair enough”, and confirmed that Mr. Sinclair indeed had the right not to
speak. Sgt. Skrine also said that, as he understood the law in Canada, Mr.
Sinclair had the right to consult his lawyer but did not have the right to have
the lawyer present during questioning. The appellant appeared to accept this
proposition, and the interview continued with Sgt. Skrine attempting to build
trust with Mr. Sinclair while eliciting some preliminary information.
[9]
Shortly thereafter, Mr. Sinclair again expressed discomfort with being
interviewed in the absence of his lawyer. Sgt. Skrine reiterated to the
appellant that he had the right to choose whether to talk or not. He also
expressed the view that Mr. Sinclair’s right to counsel had already been
satisfied by the prior telephone calls. This explanation seemed to satisfy Mr.
Sinclair for the time being, and the preliminary questioning continued.
[10] Later,
when Sgt. Skrine started to ask questions about the crime scene, telling the
appellant for the first time that they knew it was Mr. Grice’s blood on the
carpet in his hotel room, Mr. Sinclair stated: “Well I choose to say nothing
at the moment” (Supp. A.R., at p. 43). Sgt. Skrine stated: “Fair enough”, and
continued to reveal details about the investigation. Shortly after, Mr.
Sinclair reiterated that he was “not talking right now” and that he wanted to
speak to his lawyer about all this. Sgt. Skrine told him that it was his
decision whether to speak or not. The interview continued in this manner for
some time. Altogether, Mr. Sinclair alternately expressed his desire to speak
with his lawyer and his intention to remain silent on matters touching his
involvement in the killing four or five times. Each time, Sgt. Skrine
emphasized that it was Mr. Sinclair’s choice to make. On one of these
occasions, Mr. Sinclair expressed uncertainty about what he should do,
stating the following:
Just don’t know what to do right now. And that’s why I say I wanna wait
and think and muddle things through my mind and talk to my lawyer and talk to
people I . . . and you don’t seem to understand that either. It’s like okay
that’s fine. I know you’re trying to do your job. And I do think you’re doing
a good job, it’s just I just don’t know what to say at the moment. [Supp. A.R.,
at p. 77]
[11] Eventually,
Sgt. Skrine began to get the kind of answers he was looking for. Mr. Sinclair
commented: “You already knew all the answers before you even brought me into
the room”, and he began to describe what transpired between him and Mr. Grice
(Supp. A.R., at p. 85). According to the appellant, the two men had been
drinking liquor and Mr. Grice had been using cocaine in Mr. Sinclair’s hotel
room. They were both intoxicated. At one point, Mr. Grice approached the appellant
holding a knife. The appellant thought that Mr. Grice wanted money for another
fix and reacted by hitting him over the head with a frying pan. A struggle
ensued, and the appellant ended up stabbing Mr. Grice several times and
slitting his throat. He disposed of the body and the bloodied bedding in a
dumpster.
[12] Later,
the police placed Mr. Sinclair in a cell with an undercover officer. When the
officer observed that Mr. Sinclair had been under questioning for a long time,
Mr. Sinclair responded: “They’ve got me, the body, the sheets, the blood, the
fibres on the carpet, witnesses. I’m going away for a long time but I feel
relieved” (A.R., at p. 14). He explained that he would not have to keep
looking over his shoulder for the police.
[13]
Mr. Sinclair also accompanied the police to where Mr. Grice had
been killed and participated in a re‑enactment.
III. Judicial History
A. Supreme Court of British Columbia (Powers
J.), 2003 BCSC 2040 (CanLII)
[14] At
trial, a voir dire was conducted to determine the admissibility of
Mr. Sinclair’s statements on common law and Charter grounds.
[15] The
trial judge held that the three statements (the initial interview, the exchange
with the undercover officer, and the re-enactment) had been proven by the Crown
to be voluntary beyond a reasonable doubt. Indeed, he noted that their
voluntariness was not seriously contested. They were therefore admissible at
common law. On the s. 10 (b) Charter application, the trial judge
held that Mr. Sinclair’s right to counsel had been satisfied by the telephone
calls prior to the interview. The trial judge explained that “once the person
has been advised of their rights under Section 10 (b), exercised those rights to
retain and instruct counsel, . . . the police can then continue to interview
them” (para. 115). In the absence of any change in circumstances, such as a
change in jeopardy or an indication that the detainee does not understand his
rights, the appropriate question that arises where a person’s repeated requests
for additional contact with counsel have been ignored is whether the detainee’s
will had been overborne within the meaning of the confessions rule. Section 10 (b)
offers no further protection in such circumstances. The statements were
admitted and Mr. Sinclair was convicted of manslaughter.
B. British Columbia Court of Appeal (Hall, Lowry
and Frankel JJ.A.), 2008 BCCA 127, 169 C.R.R. (2d) 232
[16] On
appeal, Mr. Sinclair argued that the trial judge erred in holding that his
right to counsel had not been violated. According to Mr. Sinclair, Sgt.
Skrine’s refusal to facilitate the appellant’s repeated requests to speak with
his lawyer during the course of the interview constituted a breach of s. 10 (b).
Mr. Sinclair did not contest the trial judge’s finding that his statements were
voluntary.
[17]
Writing for a unanimous Court of Appeal, Frankel J.A. endorsed
the trial judge’s statement of the law and his application of it in this case.
Relying on this Court’s recent decision in R. v. Singh, 2007 SCC 48, [2007] 3 S.C.R. 405, he stressed that the right to counsel needs to
be understood in tandem with the right to silence, which it is meant to help
protect. If, as held in Singh, there is no right to unilaterally cut off
questioning by asserting the right to silence, no such right can be found under
s. 10 (b) either. Frankel J.A. explained:
The right to counsel is intended to ensure that
detainees receive immediate legal advice so that they will be able to make
informed choices in their dealings with the police. As discussed in Hebert and
Singh, once a detainee has exercised his or her right to counsel, the
police are entitled to use legitimate means to persuade him or her to speak. I
see no policy reason for providing a detainee, who does not have the right to
terminate an interview by stating “I wish to remain silent”, the peremptory
right to do so by stating, “I want to talk to my lawyer again.” [para. 40]
While special circumstances like a discrete change in jeopardy would
require an additional opportunity to consult with counsel, no such
circumstances were present in this case. It mattered not, therefore, how many
times Mr. Sinclair may have asked to consult with counsel. Mr. Sinclair’s
appeal was dismissed and his conviction affirmed.
[18] On
further appeal to this Court, Mr. Sinclair repeats the broad proposition
advanced in the Court of Appeal below that s. 10 (b) of the Charter
imposes a duty on the police to discontinue questioning a detainee who has
exercised the right to counsel when the detainee indicates a desire to speak
with counsel again. He argues further that s. 10 (b) requires the police
to respect a detainee’s request to have counsel present during a custodial
interrogation.
IV. Analysis
A. The Wording of Section 10 (b) of the Charter
[19] Section
10 (b) of the Charter states that upon arrest or detention, a
person has the right to “retain and instruct counsel without delay” (“avoir
recours sans délai à l’assistance d’un avocat”).
[20] Mr.
Sinclair argues that the plain wording of s. 10 (b) does not restrict the
right to retain and instruct counsel to an initial, preliminary consultation.
Section 10 (b) speaks of a right, upon arrest or detention, to “retain
and instruct counsel without delay”. Although the wording makes clear that the
right arises on detention, there is nothing on its face to indicate when the
right is exhausted. It is argued that while the English words, “retain and
instruct” can plausibly be read to connote a continuing right, the French
version of s. 10 (b) indicates this even more strongly (“avoir recours
sans délai à l’assistance d’un avocat”). It is argued that the word “assistance”
connotes the right to the ongoing help of a lawyer.
[21] Against
these arguments, the Crown submits that the words “on arrest or detention”
indicate a point in time, not a continuum. It is true, the Crown concedes, that
“retain” and the French “recours . . . à l’assistance” can be read as
suggesting continuity. But against this, the words “without delay” can be read
to indicate a discrete period shortly following arrest or detention.
[22] The
surrounding text of s. 10 does not greatly assist in resolving the debate on
whether s. 10 (b) confers initial or continuing rights. Section 10 (a)
provides the right on arrest or detention “to be informed promptly of the
reasons therefor”. This clearly confers a duty to give the detainee
information at a discrete point in time; there is no requirement that the
police convey this information more than once, unless the reasons themselves
change: R. v. Evans, [1991] 1 S.C.R. 869. But the right of habeas
corpus conferred by s. 10 (c) is self-evidently a continuing right.
[23] We
conclude that the language of s. 10 (b) does not resolve the issue before
us. A deeper purposive analysis is required.
B. The Purpose of Section 10 (b) of the Charter
[24] The
purpose of s. 10 (b) is to provide a detainee with an opportunity to
obtain legal advice relevant to his legal situation. In the context of a
custodial interrogation, chief among the rights that must be understood by the
detainee is the right under s. 7 of the Charter to choose whether to
cooperate with the police or not.
[25] The
purpose of s. 10 (b) of the Charter and its relationship with the
right to silence under s. 7 were stated by McLachlin J. (as she then was) in R.
v. Hebert, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 151, at pp. 176-77. These rights combine to
ensure that a suspect is able to make a choice to speak to the police
investigators that is both free and informed:
Section 7
confers on the detained person the right to choose whether to speak to the
authorities or to remain silent. Section 10 (b) requires that he be
advised of his right to consult counsel and permitted to do so without delay.
The most important function of legal advice upon detention is to
ensure that the accused understands his rights, chief among which is his right
to silence. . . . Read together, ss. 7 and 10 (b) confirm the right to
silence in s. 7 and shed light on its nature.
The guarantee of the right to consult counsel
confirms that the essence of the right is the accused’s freedom to choose
whether to make a statement or not. The state is not obliged to protect the
suspect against making a statement; indeed it is open to the state to use
legitimate means of persuasion to encourage the suspect to do so. The state
is, however, obliged to allow the suspect to make an informed choice about
whether or not he will speak to the authorities. To assist in that choice, the
suspect is given the right to counsel. [Emphasis added.]
[26] The
purpose of the right to counsel is “to allow the detainee not only to be
informed of his rights and obligations under the law but, equally if not more
important, to obtain advice as to how to exercise those rights”: R. v.
Manninen, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 1233, at pp. 1242-43. The emphasis, therefore, is
on assuring that the detainee’s decision to cooperate with the investigation or
decline to do so is free and informed. Section 10 (b) does not guarantee
that the detainee’s decision is wise; nor does it guard against subjective
factors that may influence the decision. Its purpose is simply to give
detainees the opportunity to access legal advice relevant to that choice.
[27] Section
10 (b) fulfills its purpose in two ways. First, it requires that the
detainee be advised of his right to counsel. This is called the informational
component. Second, it requires that the detainee be given an opportunity to
exercise his right to consult counsel. This is called the implementational
component. Failure to comply with either of these components frustrates the
purpose of s. 10 (b) and results in a breach of the detainee’s rights: Manninen.
Implied in the second component is a duty on the police to hold off questioning
until the detainee has had a reasonable opportunity to consult counsel. The
police obligations flowing from s. 10 (b) are not absolute. Unless a
detainee invokes the right and is reasonably diligent in exercising it, the
correlative duties on the police to provide a reasonable opportunity and to
refrain from eliciting evidence will either not arise in the first place or will
be suspended: R. v. Tremblay, [1987] 2 S.C.R. 435, at p. 439, and R.
v. Black, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 138, at pp. 154‑55.
[28] Once
informed of his right to consult counsel, the detainee may waive the right,
deciding not to avail himself of the opportunity to consult that has been
provided. The right to choose whether to cooperate with the police, the basic
purpose of s. 10 (b), has been respected in the event of a valid waiver,
and there is consequently no breach.
[29] The s.
10 (b) right to consult and retain counsel and to be advised of that
right supports the broader s. 7 right to silence. However, it is not to be
confused with the right to silence. An important purpose of legal advice is to
inform the accused about his right to choose whether to cooperate with the
police investigation and how to exercise it. Section 10 (b) is a
specific right directed at one aspect of protecting the right to silence — the
opportunity to secure legal assistance. A given case may raise both s. 10 (b)
and s. 7 issues. Where it is alleged under s. 7 and the confessions rule that
a statement is involuntary because of denial of the right to consult counsel,
the factual underpinning of the two inquiries may overlap: Singh. Yet
they remain distinct inquiries. The fact that the police complied with s. 10 (b)
does not mean that a statement is voluntary under the confessions rule.
Conversely, the fact that a statement is made voluntarily does not rule out
breach of s. 10 (b). It follows that Singh, which was concerned
with the s. 7 right to silence, does not resolve the issue on this appeal.
[30] Mr.
Sinclair argues that the purpose of s. 10 (b) is broader than this. In
his view, accepted by our colleagues LeBel and Fish JJ., the purpose of s. 10 (b)
is to advise the detainee on how to deal with police questions. The detainee,
it is argued, is in the power of the police. The purpose of s. 10 (b) is
to restore a power-balance between the detainee and the police in the coercive
atmosphere of the police investigation. On this view, the purpose of the right
is not so much informational as protective.
[31] We
cannot accept this view of the purpose of s. 10 (b). As will be
discussed more fully below, this view of s. 10 (b) goes against 25 years
of jurisprudence defining s. 10 (b) in terms of the right to consult
counsel to obtain information and advice immediately upon detention, but not as
providing ongoing legal assistance during the course of the interview that
follows, regardless of the circumstances.
[32]
We conclude that in the context of a custodial interrogation, the
purpose of s. 10 (b) is to support the detainee’s right to choose whether
to cooperate with the police investigation or not, by giving him access to
legal advice on the situation he is facing. This is achieved by requiring that
he be informed of the right to consult counsel and, if he so requests, be given
an opportunity to consult counsel.
C. The Right to Have Counsel
Present Throughout the Interview
[33] Mr.
Sinclair submits that s. 10 (b) entitles a detainee to have a lawyer
present, upon request, during the entirety of the interview.
[34] Precedent
is against this interpretation of s. 10 (b). While this Court has never
ruled directly on the matter, lower courts appear to be unanimous that no such
right exists in Canada: see, e.g., R. v. Friesen (1995), 101 C.C.C. (3d)
167 (Alta. C.A.); R. v. Mayo (1999), 133 C.C.C. (3d) 168 (Ont. C.A.); R.
v. Ekman, 2000 BCCA 414, 146 C.C.C. (3d) 346. Most recently, in R. v.
Osmond, 2007 BCCA 470, 227 C.C.C. (3d) 375 (leave to appeal refused, [2008]
1 S.C.R. xii), the Court of Appeal (per Donald J.A.) declined to
entertain such a submission on the ground that it would reverse clear authority
to the contrary. In Friesen, Côté J.A. expressed the prevailing view
thus: “We should not (and cannot) change the law of Canada so as to forbid the
police to talk to a detained suspect unless defence counsel sits in and rules
on each question” (p. 182).
[35] The
language of s. 10 (b) does not appear to contemplate this requirement.
Mr. Sinclair relies on an expansive construction of the word “instruct”,
together with an emphasis on the French “l’assistance d’un avocat”. He
argues that this wording “invites a broad and unrestricted interpretation
focused on meeting the needs of [the detainee] whenever and wherever required”
(A.F., at para. 63). While “retain and instruct” and their French equivalent
reasonably connote more than a perfunctory consultation prior to interrogation,
as discussed above, they do not necessarily imply the continued presence of
counsel throughout the interview process.
[36] This
returns us to the purpose of s. 10 (b). As discussed above, it is to inform
the detainee of his or her rights and provide the detainee with an opportunity
to get legal advice on how to exercise them. These purposes can be achieved by
the right to re-consult counsel where developments make this necessary, as
discussed below. They do not demand the continued presence of counsel
throughout the interview process.
[37] Mr.
Sinclair argues that other countries recognize a right to have counsel present
throughout a police interview (see Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966),
and Escobedo v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 478 (1964)), and that Canada should
do the same. He relies on academic commentary. See L. Stuesser “The Accused’s
Right to Silence: No Doesn’t Mean No” (2002), 29 Man. L.J. 149, at p.
150.
[38] We are
not persuaded that the Miranda rule should be transplanted in Canadian
soil. The scope of s. 10 (b) of the Charter must be defined by
reference to its language; the right to silence; the common law confessions
rule; and the public interest in effective law enforcement in the Canadian
context. Adopting procedural protections from other jurisdictions in a
piecemeal fashion risks upsetting the balance that has been struck by Canadian
courts and legislatures.
[39] Significant
differences exist between the Canadian and American regimes. Miranda
came about in response to abusive police tactics then prevalent in the U.S.,
and applies in the context of a host of other rules that are less favourable to
the accused than their equivalents in Canada. For example, Miranda
applies only to persons “in custody”. Custody, for these purposes, means
“‘formal arrest or restraint on freedom of movement’ [to] the degree associated
with a formal arrest”: California v. Beheler, 463 U.S. 1121 (1983), at
p. 1125; Yarborough v. Alvarado, 541 U.S. 652 (2004). The Canadian
understanding of psychological detention triggering s. 10 (b) is more
expansive: R. v. Grant, 2009 SCC 32, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 353, at para. 44.
Moreover, breach of the Miranda rule does not prohibit use at trial of
the detainee’s evidence for the purpose of impeaching the accused’s testimony
at trial (Harris v. New York, 401 U.S. 222 (1971); Oregon v. Hass,
420 U.S. 714 (1975)), nor prohibit the introduction at trial of real derivative
evidence (United States v. Patane, 542 U.S. 630 (2004)). By contrast,
Canadian rules on the admissibility of evidence obtained in violation of s. 10 (b)
are much more favourable to the accused: see R. v. Calder, [1996] 1
S.C.R. 660; R. v. Noël, 2002 SCC 67, [2002] 3 S.C.R. 433, at para. 55;
Grant, at paras. 116‑28.
[40] Additionally,
the empirical research on Miranda has not reached a definitive
conclusion as to the nature or magnitude of its effects. Some have posited
that it has had a detrimental effect on law enforcement. Others have vigorously
contested such empirical conclusions. See generally, e.g., P. G. Cassell, “Miranda’s
Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment” (1996), 90 Nw. U. L. Rev. 387;
P. G. Cassell and R. Fowles, “Handcuffing the Cops? A Thirty-Year Perspective
on Miranda’s Harmful Effects on Law Enforcement” (1997-1998), 50 Stan.
L. Rev. 1055; S. J. Schulhofer, “Miranda’s Practical Effect:
Substantial Benefits and Vanishingly Small Social Costs” (1996), 90 Nw. U.
L. Rev. 500. Whatever the merit of these arguments, the existence of such
a controversy should signal caution in relying on any empirical conclusions
about Miranda in departing from our own constitutional traditions.
[41] Moreover,
any inferences drawn from the American experience as to the effects on law
enforcement of a Miranda-type regime must be tempered by the fact that
about 80 percent of suspects ultimately waive their Miranda rights: see,
e.g., P. G. Cassell and B. S. Hayman, “Police Interrogation in the 1990s: An
Empirical Study of the Effects of Miranda” (1995-1996), 43 U.C.L.A.
L. Rev. 839; R. A. Leo, “Inside the Interrogation Room” (1995-1996), 86 J.
Crim. L. & Criminology 266. This has led some authors to assert that Miranda
provides only illusory protections to the vast majority of individuals who
are subjected to custodial interrogation: see C. D. Weisselberg, “Mourning Miranda”
(2008), 96 Cal. L. Rev. 1519; R. J. Allen, “Miranda’s Hollow
Core” (2006), 100 Nw. U. L. Rev. 71; M. A. Godsey, “Reformulating the Miranda
Warnings in Light of Contemporary Law and Understandings” (2006), 90 Minn.
L. Rev. 781.
[42] We
conclude that s. 10 (b) should not be interpreted as conferring a
constitutional right to have a lawyer present throughout a police interview.
There is of course nothing to prevent counsel from being present at an
interrogation where all sides consent, as already occurs. The police remain
free to facilitate such an arrangement if they so choose, and the detainee may
wish to make counsel’s presence a precondition of giving a statement.
D. The Right to Reconsult Counsel
(a) Overview of the
Jurisprudence
[43]
The authorities suggest that normally, s. 10 (b) affords
the detainee a single consultation with a lawyer. However, they also recognize
that in some circumstances, a further opportunity to consult a lawyer may be
constitutionally required. These circumstances, as discussed more fully below,
generally involve a material change in the detainee’s situation after the
initial consultation.
[44] The
“single consultation” interpretation of s. 10 (b) was forcefully
expressed in R. v. Logan (1988), 46 C.C.C. (3d) 354 (Ont. C.A.). After
reviewing the authorities, the court stated, at p. 381:
The clear implication in the judgment of Lamer J. in Manninen is
that s. 10 (b) confers the right, upon arrest or detention, to retain,
instruct and be instructed by counsel before any statements of the
accused are elicited. The words “upon arrest or detention” indicate
a point in time, not a continuum. They do not deal with a continuing right
to be reinstructed before every occasion on which the police obtain a statement
from the accused. It is true that “retain” has a connotation of continuity
(The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1973), p. 1813), but this is with
respect to the engagement of services, i.e., the availability and
subsequent resort to them when one wants to do so. It does not express a prerequisite
to every subsequent elicitation of information. [Underlining added.]
[45]
Many courts of appeal have agreed: see R. v. Wood (1994),
94 C.C.C. (3d) 193 (N.S.C.A.); R. v. Gormley (1999), 140 C.C.C. (3d) 110
(P.E.I.S.C., App. Div.); R. v. Baidwan, 2001 BCSC 1412, [2001] B.C.J.
No. 3073 (QL), aff’d 2003 BCCA 351, [2003] B.C.J. No. 1439 (QL); R. v.
Bohnet, 2003 ABCA 207, 111 C.R.R. (2d) 131; R. v. Anderson, 2009
ABCA 67, 243 C.C.C. (3d) 134; R. v. Weeseekase, 2007 SKCA 115, 228
C.C.C. (3d) 117. See also, to the contrary, R. v. R. (P.L.) (1988), 44
C.C.C. (3d) 174 (N.S.S.C., App. Div.); Osmond; and R. v. Badgerow,
2008 ONCA 605, 237 C.C.C. (3d) 107, per Simmons J.A.
[46]
This Court has not definitively pronounced itself on the matter,
although it has recognized the need for a second opportunity to consult counsel
in situations where changed circumstances make this necessary: see Evans;
R. v. Burlingham, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 206; Black; R. v. Prosper,
[1994] 3 S.C.R. 236. We now turn to these cases.
(b) When a Right to Further Legal Consultation
Has Been Upheld
[47] Section
10 (b) should be interpreted in a way that fully respects its purpose of
supporting the detainee’s s. 7 right to choose whether or not to cooperate with
the police investigation. Normally, this purpose is achieved by a single
consultation at the time of detention or shortly thereafter. This gives the
detainee the information he needs to make a meaningful choice as to whether to
cooperate with the investigation or decline to do so. However, as the cases
illustrate, sometimes developments occur which require a second consultation,
in order to allow the accused to get the advice he needs to exercise his right
to choose in the new situation.
[48] The
general idea that underlies the cases where the Court has upheld a second right
to consult with counsel is that changed circumstances suggest that
reconsultation is necessary in order for the detainee to have the information
relevant to choosing whether to cooperate with the police investigation or
not. The concern is that in the new or newly revealed circumstances, the
initial advice may no longer be adequate.
[49] The
police, of course, are at liberty to facilitate any number of further
consultations with counsel. In some circumstances, the interrogator may even
consider it a useful technique to reassure the detainee that further access to
counsel will be available if needed. For example, in the companion case of R.
v. Willier, 2010 SCC 37, [2010] 2 S.C.R. 429, a skilled interrogator
commenced the interview by making it clear to the detainee that he would be
free at any time during the interview to stop and call a lawyer. The question
here is when a further consultation is required under s. 10 (b) of
the Charter . For the purpose of providing guidance to investigating
police officers, it is helpful to indicate situations in which it appears clear
that a second consultation with counsel is so required. The categories are not
closed. However, additions to them should be developed only where necessary to
ensure that s. 10 (b) has achieved its purpose.
1. New Procedures Involving the Detainee
[50] The
initial advice of legal counsel will be geared to the expectation that the
police will seek to question the detainee. Non-routine procedures, like
participation in a line-up or submitting to a polygraph, will not generally
fall within the expectation of the advising lawyer at the time of the initial
consultation. It follows that to fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b) of
providing the detainee with the information necessary to making a meaningful
choice about whether to cooperate in these new procedures, further advice from
counsel is necessary: R. v. Ross, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 3.
2. Change in Jeopardy
[51]
The detainee is advised upon detention of the reasons for the
detention: s. 10 (a). The s. 10 (b) advice and opportunity to
consult counsel follows this. The advice given will be tailored to the
situation as the detainee and his lawyer then understand it. If the
investigation takes a new and more serious turn as events unfold, that advice
may no longer be adequate to the actual situation, or jeopardy, the detainee
faces. In order to fulfill the purpose of s. 10 (b), the detainee must
be given a further opportunity to consult with counsel and obtain advice on the
new situation. See Evans and Black.
3. Reason to Question the Detainee’s
Understanding of His Section 10(b) Right
[52] If
events indicate that a detainee who has waived his right to counsel may not
have understood his right, the police should reiterate his right to consult
counsel, to ensure that the purpose of s. 10(b) is fulfilled: Prosper.
More broadly, this may be taken to suggest that circumstances indicating that
the detainee may not have understood the initial s. 10(b) advice of his
right to counsel impose on the police a duty to give him a further opportunity
to talk to a lawyer. Similarly, if the police undermine the legal advice that
the detainee has received, this may have the effect of distorting or nullifying
it. This undercuts the purpose of s. 10(b). In order to counteract this
effect, it has been found necessary to give the detainee a further right to
consult counsel. See Burlingham.
(c) The General Principle Emerging From the
Cases
[53] The
general principle underlying the cases discussed above is this: where a
detainee has already retained legal advice, the implementational duty on the
police under s. 10(b) includes an obligation to provide the detainee
with a reasonable opportunity to consult counsel again where a change of
circumstances makes this necessary to fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b) of
the Charter of providing the detainee with legal advice on his choice of
whether to cooperate with the police investigation or decline to do so.
[54] The
cases thus far offer examples of situations where the right of another
consultation arises. However, the categories are not closed. Where the
circumstances do not fall into a situation previously recognized, the question
is whether a further opportunity to consult a lawyer is necessary to fulfill
s. 10(b)’s purpose of providing the detainee with advice in the new or
emergent situation.
[55] The
change of circumstances, the cases suggest, must be objectively observable in
order to trigger additional implementational duties for the police. It is not
enough for the accused to assert, after the fact, that he was confused or
needed help, absent objective indicators that renewed legal consultation was
required to permit him to make a meaningful choice as to whether to cooperate
with the police investigation or refuse to do so.
[56] As we
read his reasons, Binnie J. agrees that allowing further consultations with
counsel is constitutionally mandated where developing circumstances make this
necessary to serve the purpose underlying s. 10(b). However, he would go
further and expand the category of cases where this right arises to include all
situations where the detainee reasonably requests this in the course of a
custodial interview. He then sets out a non-exhaustive list of factors which
may provide reasonable grounds for a further consultation for the guidance of
police and reviewing courts (para. 106).
[57] As we
see it, an approach which would require that questioning be suspended pending a
reasonable opportunity to consult further with counsel whenever there is
“objective support” to think that the detainee may require further legal advice
is not sufficiently connected to the purpose of ensuring that the detainee
remains properly advised about how to exercise his or her rights. It is
assumed that the initial legal advice received was sufficient and correct in
relation to how the detainee should exercise his or her rights in the context
of the police investigation. The failure to provide an additional opportunity
to consult counsel will constitute a breach of s. 10(b) only when it
becomes clear, as a result of changed circumstances or new developments, that
the initial advice, viewed contextually, is no longer sufficient or correct.
This is consistent with the purpose of s. 10(b) to ensure that the
detainee’s decision to cooperate with the police or not is informed as well as
free. Our colleague’s proposed test does not, in our respectful view, capture
the circumstances in which additional advice may be required.
[58] Further,
this aspect of the test gives the detainee an additional, vaguely described and
unnecessary tool to control the interrogation, a tool more likely to be of
benefit to the sophisticated than to the vulnerable. Detainees have an
absolute right to silence and, therefore, ultimate control over the
interrogation. They have the right not to say anything, to decide what to say
and when. It must be remembered that the opportunity to consult again with
counsel is accompanied by a duty on the police to hold off further questioning
until that consultation has taken place or a reasonable opportunity for it to
occur has been provided. This may well result in long delays in pursuing the
interrogation. A person’s Charter rights “must be exercised in a way
that is reconcilable with the needs of society”: R. v. Smith, [1989] 2
S.C.R. 368, at p. 385. The purpose of the right to counsel is not to permit
suspects, particularly sophisticated and assertive ones, to delay “needlessly
and with impunity an investigation and even, in certain cases, to allow for an
essential piece of evidence to be lost, destroyed or [for whatever reasons,
made] impossible to obtain”: Smith, at p. 385. This, however, is the
likely result of Binnie J.’s proposed approach, in our view.
[59] Finally,
the proposed test is so vague that it is impractical. No doubt, courts over the
years would sort out these problems as best they can. But these efforts will
leave a trail of Charter motions, appeals and second trials in their
wake. In our respectful view, there is no constitutional need for any of
this.
[60] The
better approach is to continue to deal with claims of subjective incapacity or
intimidation under the confessions rule. For example, in R. v. Oickle,
2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3, at para. 61, the Court recognized that using
non-existent evidence to elicit a confession runs the risk of creating an
oppressive environment and rendering any statement involuntary. In Singh,
the Court stressed that persistence in continuing the interview, particularly
in the face of repeated assertions by the detainee that he wishes to remain
silent, may raise “a strong argument that any subsequently obtained statement
was not the product of a free will to speak to the authorities” (para. 47).
However, the cases thus far do not support the view that the common police
tactic of gradually revealing (actual or fake) evidence to the detainee in
order to demonstrate or exaggerate the strength of the case against him
automatically triggers the right to a second consultation with a lawyer, giving
rise to renewed s. 10(b) rights.
[61] We
note that our colleagues LeBel and Fish JJ. express concern that these reasons,
together with the majority judgment in Singh, “in effect creates a new
right on the part of the police to the unfettered and continuing access to the
detainee, for the purposes of conducting a custodial interview to the point of
confession” (para. 190). While Binnie J. does not endorse their approach, he
echoes similar concerns.
[62] We do
not agree with the suggestion that our interpretation of s. 10(b) will
give carte blanche to the police. This argument overlooks the
requirement that confessions must be voluntary in the broad sense now
recognized by the law. The police must not only fulfill their obligations
under s. 10(b); they must conduct the interview in strict conformity
with the confessions rule. On this point, we disagree with Binnie J. that the
test for voluntariness in Oickle “sets a substantial hurdle to making
inadmissible a confession” (para. 92). As explained more fully in Singh,
the confessions rule is broad-based and clearly encompasses the right to
silence. Far from truncating the detainee’s constitutional right to silence,
its recognition as one component of the common law rule enhances the right as
any reasonable doubt on the question of voluntariness must result in the
automatic exclusion of the statement. We also disagree with LeBel and Fish JJ.
that the number of times Mr. Singh asserted that he had nothing to say during
the course of his interview demonstrates that the protection afforded under the
confessions rule is meaningless (para. 183). Voluntariness can only be
determined by considering all the circumstances. As stated by the majority in Singh,
at para. 53:
It must again be emphasized that such situations are
highly fact‑specific and trial judges must take into account all the
relevant factors in determining whether or not the Crown has established that
the accused’s confession is voluntary. In some circumstances, the evidence will
support a finding that continued questioning by the police in the face of the
accused’s repeated assertions of the right to silence denied the accused a
meaningful choice whether to speak or to remain silent: see Otis. The
number of times the accused asserts his or her right to silence is part of the
assessment of all of the circumstances, but is not in itself determinative. The
ultimate question is whether the accused exercised free will by choosing to
make a statement: Otis, at paras. 50 and 54.
The trial judge
in Singh had correctly instructed himself in accordance with the law and
conducted a thorough review of all relevant circumstances. As noted by the
majority: “Indeed, his analysis of the applicable jurisprudence and review of
the relevant facts are impeccable, particularly with respect to the right to
silence” (para. 50). In the majority’s view, there was no basis to interfere
with his ruling.
[63] Our
colleagues LeBel and Fish JJ. also assert that our approach is such that the
detainee is effectively forced to participate in the police
investigation. The suggestion is that the questioning of a suspect, in and of
itself, runs counter to the presumption of innocence and the protection against
self-incrimination. This is clearly contrary to settled authority and practice.
In our view, in defining the contours of the s. 7 right to silence and
related Charter rights, consideration must be given not only to the
protection of the rights of the accused but also to the societal interest in
the investigation and solving of crimes. The police are charged with the duty
to investigate alleged crimes and, in performing this duty, they necessarily have
to make inquiries from relevant sources of information, including persons
suspected of, or even charged with, committing the alleged crime. While the
police must be respectful of an individual’s Charter rights, a rule that
would require the police to automatically retreat upon a detainee stating that
he or she has nothing to say, in our respectful view, would not strike the
proper balance between the public interest in the investigation of crimes and
the suspect’s interest in being left alone.
[64] Finally,
LeBel and Fish JJ. assert in different ways that our reasons represent a
constitutionalized expansion of police powers. We fail to see how our reasons
could be so interpreted. Rather, as explained earlier, we take the settled view
to the effect that the right to counsel is essentially a one-time matter with
few recognized exceptions, and expand upon this existing jurisprudence by
recognizing the right to a further consultation with counsel in any case where
a change in circumstances makes this necessary to fulfill s. 10(b)’s
purpose of providing the detainee with advice in the new or emergent situation.
If anything, our reasons broaden the protection available to suspects, and
narrow the ambit of police questioning. In our respectful view, it is our colleagues
LeBel and Fish JJ.’s interpretation of the scope of s. 10(b) that would
change the law substantially by recognizing a hitherto unrecognized
constitutional right to have counsel present at all times during an
interrogation — and do so, we note, by relying on the dissenting opinion in Singh
which was rejected by the majority of the Court.
[65] We
conclude that the principles and case-law do not support the view that a
request, without more, is sufficient to retrigger the s. 10(b) right to
counsel and to be advised thereof. What is required is a change in
circumstances that suggests that the choice faced by the accused has been
significantly altered, requiring further advice on the new situation, in order
to fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b) of providing the accused with legal
advice relevant to the choice of whether to cooperate with the police
investigation or not. Police tactics short of such a change may result in the
Crown being unable to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that a subsequent
statement was voluntary, rendering it inadmissible. But it does not follow
that the procedural rights granted by s. 10(b) have been breached.
V. Application to the Facts
[66] The
question is whether Mr. Sinclair should have been given a second opportunity to
consult with a lawyer. Mr. Sinclair does not appear to fall into any of the
categories where thus far a right to reconsultation has been recognized as
necessary to fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b) of giving the detainee
access to legal advice with respect to his right to choose whether to cooperate
with the police or not. Mr. Sinclair’s jeopardy remained the same
throughout; he knew from the outset he was facing a charge of murder. The
evidence the police told him about did not change the jeopardy he was facing.
The police were not requesting his cooperation in a line-up. And as the Court
of Appeal held, the police representations as to the strength of the evidence
against him do not, without more, raise the need for further consultation with
a lawyer.
[67] The
only possibility of a renewed right to consult a lawyer lies in an extension of
the reasoning in Prosper or Burlingham. Read broadly, these
cases suggest that developments in the investigation suggesting that the detainee
may be confused about his choices and right to remain silent may trigger the
right to a renewed consultation with a lawyer under s. 10(b). The
bottom line in such a situation is whether the circumstances, viewed as a
whole, indicate that the detainee required further legal advice in order to
fulfill the purpose of s. 10(b) of providing legal advice on his choice
as to whether to cooperate with the police or not.
[68] The
sequence of the interview relevant to this line of inquiry begins with
Mr. Sinclair’s reaction to Sgt. Skrine’s statement that the case against
him was “absolutely overwhelming”.
[69] To
this Mr. Sinclair answered, “I want my lawyer to look through all that”. This
can be interpreted as a need for legal advice on the actual strength of the
case against him.
[70] The
interview continued, and Mr. Sinclair continued to ask for legal advice. On
one of these occasions, he expressed uncertainty about what to do:
Just
don’t know what to do right now. And that’s why I say I wanna wait and think
and muddle things through my mind and talk to my lawyer and talk to people I .
. . and you don’t seem to understand that either. It’s like okay that’s fine.
I know you’re trying to do your job. And I do think you’re doing a good job,
it’s just I just don’t know what to say at the moment. [Emphasis added;
Supp. A.R., at p. 77.]
[71] Read
broadly and in isolation, these passages arguably support the allegation that
Mr. Sinclair may have been confused about his rights and how he should exercise
them. However, read in context, it is clear that Mr. Sinclair never had any
doubt about the choices the law allowed him and, in particular, his
constitutional right to remain silent. The police did not denigrate the legal
advice he had received. Rather, they repeatedly confirmed that it was Mr.
Sinclair’s choice whether or not to speak.
[72] After
his confession, and the so-called re-enactment, Mr. Sinclair had an exchange
with Sgt. Skrine, which made clear his awareness of the choice he faced and the
fact that it went against the advice of his lawyer.
Sinclair: Lawyer’ll probably be mad that I told everything
out but it’s like whatever. It’s like I’m I know when I know I know
when is when. It’s like . . .
Skrine: Yeah. Well you know and that’s what I said up front. I mean
you’re given advice, but at the end of the day you make the decision right?
Sinclair: Yeah.
Skrine: It’s your decision to make. Um in this country and you
know my opinion is you made the right decision right?
Sinclair: Well now there’s closure.
[Emphasis added; A.R., at p. 630.]
[73] The
following findings of the trial judge confirm that Mr. Sinclair was never
confused about his legal options:
1. “I am satisfied by [Mr. Sinclair’s]
own comments that he understood his right was to remain silent, to choose
whether to speak or not. Nobody ever tried to tell him that he did not have
that right” (para. 160).
2. Mr. Sinclair’s counsel advised him
not to discuss anything important with anybody, advised about some of the
devices the police might use, including a cell plant, and advised not to say
anything “because they lie” (paras. 25 and 161).
3. “[T]he police did not make any
attempt to denigrate counsel or the advice he had received from counsel. All
they did was confirm that ultimately it was Mr. Sinclair’s decision as to
whether he said anything or not” (para. 141).
4. “I am satisfied that [Mr. Sinclair]
is certainly intelligent enough to understand what his situation was and to
make his own choices” (para. 154).
5. “What, in my opinion, happened in
this case is that all of the efforts that Sergeant Skrine made to try and
encourage Mr. Sinclair to speak were without avail. Mr. Sinclair stood up to
them very well” (para. 176).
6. “[U]ltimately when Mr. Sinclair
knew that the body had been found, that is when he decided the game was up and
he thought he may as well come clean and he did so, not because anybody offered
him anything, because it relieved him of the pressure he was under, the police
investigation, not the interview, and as he said himself, the court might look
more kindly on him having cooperated and that is why he decided to do the
re-enactment as well” (para. 178).
7. After he had made his initial
statement, Mr. Sinclair told his cell mate (who was in fact an undercover
police officer): “They’ve got me, the body, the sheets, the blood, the fibres
on the carpet, witnesses. I’m going away for a long time but I feel relieved”
(para. 40).
[74] We
conclude that Mr. Sinclair’s claim that his s. 10 (b) Charter
rights were infringed has not been made out.
VI. Disposition
[75] We
would dismiss the appeal.
The following are the reasons delivered by
[76] Binnie J. (dissenting) — This appeal
addresses the protection of a detainee’s civil liberties while under police
interrogation. It is the third in a series of recent cases that have dealt
firstly with the rule governing the voluntariness of confessions obtained by
the police, and secondly (in the next appeal) with a detainee’s ability to
insist on his or her right to silence and non-cooperation with the
investigation. Today’s decision completes the trilogy by interpreting narrowly
the guarantee in s. 10 (b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms of the right of a detainee upon arrest or detention “to retain and
instruct counsel” (or, in the French text, “d’avoir recours sans délai à
l’assistance d’un avocat”).
[77] The
merits of each of the three cases in this “interrogation trilogy” are open to
reasonable debate and disagreement, but when the decisions are read together,
the resulting latitude allowed to the police to deal with a detainee, who is to
be presumed innocent, disproportionately favours the interests of the state in
the investigation of crime over the rights of the individual in a free society,
in my view.
[78] Many
confessions obtained in extended police interrogations are true, but too many
are not. The Ontario Court of Appeal recently dealt with the case of Romeo
Phillion who, in 1972, confessed to a murder while in custody on a robbery
charge then recanted — he was jailed for 30 years until the conviction was
overturned and sent back for a new trial (R. v. Phillion, 2009 ONCA 202,
241 C.C.C. (3d) 193). Such cases signal caution when approaching the rules
governing police interrogations.
[79] The s.
10 (b) right to counsel, above all, is “designed to ensure that persons
who are arrested or detained are treated fairly in the criminal
process”: R. v. Bartle, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 173, at p. 191 (emphasis added);
Clarkson v. The Queen, [1986] 1 S.C.R. 383, at p. 394. In interpreting
s. 10 (b), the courts need to take a long-term view of the reputation and
integrity of our justice system rather than focussing on short-term results at
the police station.
Overview
[80] My
colleagues the Chief Justice and Charron J. take the position that in general
and for most practical purposes the effect of s. 10 (b) is more or less
spent once the lawyer has advised the detainee before the commencement
of the police interrogation to keep his or her mouth shut. They concede that a
further consultation may be required in “changed circumstances”, but in
my view, s. 10 (b) may also be engaged by the evolving
circumstances of the interrogation. My disagreement with the majority
essentially relates to the conditions necessary for a defence lawyer to provide
meaningful assistance to a client in trouble with the law. In my view,
the detainee is entitled to a further opportunity or opportunities to receive
advice from counsel during a custodial interview where the detainee’s request
falls within the purpose of the s. 10 (b) right (i.e. to satisfy a need
for legal assistance rather than delay or distraction) and such request is
reasonably justified by the objective circumstances, which were or ought to
have been apparent to the police during the interrogation, as will be
discussed.
[81] The
detainee’s s. 10 (b) request will be dealt with in the first instance by
the police. In deciding whether or not to give effect to it, the police will
have to make a judgment call, but such judgment calls are no more difficult
than many arising in the course of police work. I give as an example the
difficult area of police common law powers. In the absence of some statutory
authority, the police regularly have to assess the extent and the limits of
their powers not previously recognized at common law. Such powers are framed
in very general language: Dedman v. The Queen, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 2. It
seems to me inconsistent with the Crown’s enthusiastic support of previously
unrecognized common law police powers for the Crown to insist that the
police are not capable of sorting out their responsibilities framed in
similarly general language. In both cases, it is the police who make the
initial difficult determination — not the judges. Eventually, of course, it is
the judge who will determine if the police got it right.
[82] I
would decline to adopt the appellant’s more ambitious submission that s. 10 (b)
requires the presence, upon request, of defence counsel during a custodial
interrogation.
[83] My
colleagues the Chief Justice and Charron J. acknowledge that there may be a
need for further consultation if there is a change in the legal jeopardy
confronting the detainee. Equally important, however, will be the detainee’s
belated appreciation in many cases of his or her existing jeopardy as
the interrogation develops in ways that were not — and could not be —
anticipated at the outset during the initial consultation with counsel. In the
appellant’s case, for example, the police let drop various bits of information,
some true and some false, over a five-hour period to hammer into his head what
they described as an “overwhelming” case proving his guilt, which ostensibly
rendered futile his continuing non-cooperation. Police use of moral suasion
is, of course, absolutely acceptable, but the appellant was clearly concerned
(manifested by his five separate requests to contact his lawyer again) whether
the lawyer’s initial advice (whatever it was) remained valid. The evolving
situation produced information the lawyer needed to have to do his job (to
provide “l’assistance”). The appellant faced a second degree murder
charge. It cannot reasonably be said, in my view, that the 360 seconds of
legal advice he received in two initial phone calls before the police began
their work was enough to exhaust his s. 10 (b) guarantee.
[84] The
majority decision limits the purpose of s. 10 (b) to “supporting the
detainee’s s. 7 right to choose whether or not to cooperate with the police
investigation” (para. 47). This, with respect, excessively conflates the right
to counsel with the right to remain silent, and results in an unduly
impoverished view of “l’assistance d’un avocat”; it belies the liberal
and generous interpretation of Charter rights so often trumpeted in our
jurisprudence. The majority view tightens the noose around s. 10 (b) to
the point where, taken together with the Court’s other recent pronouncements on
police interrogations, the police are allowed more power over the detained
individual than the Charter intended them to have.
What Are
Defence Counsel For?
[85] A
detainee needs to “retain and instruct counsel” because the law is a
complicated place, and the stakes may be high (certainly in a second degree
murder charge). The detainee is isolated and in a position of vulnerability.
The Charter recognizes that in the interest of fairness, the detainee is
entitled to help (or “l’assistance d’un avocat”) not only in relation to
the content of his or her rights but on how to exercise those rights in dealing
with the authorities: R. v. Manninen, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 1233; R. v.
Ross, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 3; and R. v. Hebert, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 151.
There is a corresponding duty imposed on the police to respect the s. 10 (b)
right.
[86] The
appellant already knew from the standard police warning that he need say
nothing and that whatever he said might be recorded and used in evidence. The
police interrogator, Sgt. Skrine, told the appellant on more than one occasion
that he did not have to say anything. It cannot be correct to limit the role
of defence counsel under s. 10 (b) simply to echo what the police have
already said and to urge silence regardless of what may emerge in the course of
the interrogation (plus perhaps a few hypothetical examples of what may
occur during the forthcoming encounter with the police). As the Ontario
Criminal Lawyers’ Association points out, this much could be accomplished by a
recorded message:
[Y]ou have reached counsel; keep your mouth shut; press one to repeat
this message. [Transcript, at p. 22]
[87] The
role of counsel at this stage of the investigation is to help put the detainee
in a position to navigate his or her legal problems with the informed capacity
the detainee could muster alone if he or she possessed the requisite legal
knowledge and experience. The choice whether or not to cooperate with the
investigation is up to the detainee — not the lawyer — but it should be an
informed choice. This does not give the lawyer access to places he or she has
no right to be (such as the interrogation room in a police detachment), but it
should certainly allow the detainee more than a preliminary piece of advice
prior to any questioning, at which point the detained person may have a very
flawed understanding of what the police are up to.
[88] Communication
between solicitor and client is the condition precedent to the lawyer’s ability
to assist. The advice will only be as good as the information on which it is
based. This is why the Court has elevated solicitor-client privilege to being
“as close to absolute as possible”: R. v. McClure, 2001 SCC 14, [2001]
1 S.C.R. 445, at para. 35. It is hardly consistent with this emphasis on the essential
nature of the free flow of information between a lawyer and a client to hold that
in the case of s. 10 (b), the lawyer can function in an informational
vacuum without the possibility of even a general idea of the unfolding
situation in the interrogation room.
The
Interrogation Trilogy
[89] The
Crown seems to conceive of the police interrogation as an endurance contest
between the detainee, who starts off with the benefit of the standard police
warning and generic advice from his or her lawyer (presumably to refuse to
cooperate — what else can the lawyer advise at that outset?) and, on the other
hand, an experienced police interrogator who wants to cajole and manoeuvre and
wear down the detainee into making incriminating statements and, if possible, a
full confession.
[90] It
bears repeating that persons detained or arrested may be quite innocent of what
is being alleged against them. Canada’s growing platoon of the wrongfully
convicted, including the by now familiar roll call of Donald Marshall, David
Milgaard, Guy Paul Morin, Thomas Sophonow, Ronald Dalton, Gregory Parsons,
Randy Druken, and others attest to the dangers of police tunnel vision and the
resulting unfairness of their investigation. See The Lamer Commission of
Inquiry into the Proceedings Pertaining to: Ronald Dalton, Gregory Parsons and
Randy Druken: Report and Annexes, by the Right Honourable Antonio Lamer
(2006), at pp. 171-73. Convinced (wrongly) of the detainee’s guilt, the police
will take whatever time and ingenuity it may require to wear down the
resistance of the individual they just know is culpable. As this Court
recognized in R. v. Oickle, 2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3, innocent
people are induced to make false confessions more frequently than those
unacquainted with the phenomenon might expect (paras. 34-45).
[91] Canadian
society has determined that it is in the long-term interest of the
administration of justice to provide the assistance of counsel at this early
stage however inconvenient it may appear in the short term. That is a policy
decision incorporated in s. 10 (b) of the Charter , and our job is
to give it full effect.
[92] Yet,
in their endurance contest with the detainee, the police are now given three
trump cards. The first is Oickle itself, which sets a substantial
hurdle to making inadmissible a confession on the basis of involuntariness.
The second is R. v. Singh, 2007 SCC 48, [2007] 3 S.C.R. 405, which
allows the police to prolong the endurance contest despite repeated assertions
of the right to silence by the detainee and the frequently expressed desire to
return to his cell. And now we have the present appeal which denies the detainee
even a “second” consultation with counsel regardless of the length of the
interrogation, unless there is a significant change of circumstances, which in
the majority view does not include the unfolding information disclosed by the
police to the detainee in the course of the investigation, however critical
such information might be to the correctness of the legal advice initially
provided, or to the need for further advice.
[93] Oickle
was the case of a pyromaniac who confessed in the course of a six-hour
police interrogation to setting seven of alleged eight fires in the vicinity of
Waterville, Nova Scotia. At issue was the admissibility of his confession, and
in particular the scope of the common law rules related to voluntariness. The
case is rightly seen as setting a high barrier to exclusion. Members of the
Court agreed on the applicable legal principles but divided 6-1 on the
application of the law to the facts. As to the legal principles, Iacobucci J.
noted that beyond the traditional exclusionary doctrines of oppression and
inducements (which are “primarily concerned with reliability”), the law
governing confessions also protects “a broader conception of voluntariness
‘that focuses on the protection of the accused’s rights and fairness in the
criminal process’” (para. 69). That said, the Court also emphasized “society’s
need to investigate and solve crimes” (para. 33), and reference was made
(twice) to the dictum of Lamer J. that “the investigation of crime and
the detection of criminals is not a game to be governed by the Marquess of
Queensbury rules”: Rothman v. The Queen, [1981] 1 S.C.R. 640, at p.
697.
[94] On the
facts of Oickle, the majority (Arbour J. dissenting) concluded that the
confession was made voluntarily despite the majority’s recognition that the
police had minimized the seriousness of the crimes (para. 77), made offers of
psychiatric help (though not as a quid pro quo for the confession)
(para. 78), and suggested that it might be necessary to administer a polygraph
test to Mr. Oickle’s fiancée to determine whether she was involved in setting
fires but, seemingly, not if Mr. Oickle himself were to confess (para. 84).
The police pretended that the results of a failed polygraph test were
“infallible” (para. 95), and jumped into their persistent questioning of Mr.
Oickle immediately after informing him that he had “failed” the polygraph test
(para. 101).
[95] On the
other hand, the police questioning was courteous and Mr. Oickle was told on at
least two occasions before his confession that he was free to leave the
interrogation (which took place in a motel room) if he wished. The majority
held that the police conduct was not necessarily incompatible with Mr. Oickle,
in the end, making a voluntary confession, as the trial judge had
concluded. It was a close case but the points made by the defence, taken in
the context of the interrogation as a whole, did not in the view of the
majority warrant setting aside the finding of voluntariness by the trial judge
to whom deference was owed. A lesson to be drawn from Oickle, in my
view, is that while the legal principles are comprehensive and fair, in the
absence of egregious circumstances, the Crown will be able to establish
“voluntariness” without great difficulty when that is the specific issue before
the Court.
[96] The
second trump card for the police is the majority judgment in Singh.
Singh was charged with second degree murder when a stray bullet hit and killed
an innocent bystander outside a pub. The issue was identification of the
shooter. Under interrogation by the police, Singh was not permitted to return
to his cell or otherwise bring the lengthy questioning to a close despite his
assertion of his right to silence on 18 different occasions. The majority
emphasized “the critical balancing of state and individual interests” (para. 7)
and observed that “the individual’s right to remain silent . . . does
not mean . . . that a person has the right not to be spoken to by state
authorities” (para. 28 (emphasis in original)). Accordingly, Charron J. for
the majority concluded that “where a statement [of the detainee] has survived a
thorough inquiry into voluntariness, the accused’s Charter application
alleging that the statement was obtained in violation of the pre-trial right to
silence under s. 7 cannot succeed” (para. 8 (emphasis added)).
Nevertheless, Charron J. noted that the “right to silence and right to counsel
are not the same” (para. 43).
[97] So now
we come to the right of counsel. It seems the police are to be given a third
trump card. The detainee is not to be entitled to “l’assistance d’un avocat”
after obtaining preliminary advice (presumably being advised to refuse to
cooperate), unless there are changed circumstances such as “[n]on-routine procedures,
like participation in a line-up or submitting to a polygraph [test that would]
not generally fall within the expectation of the advising lawyer at the time of
the initial consultation” (para. 50), or a change in legal jeopardy (para. 51),
or an indication that a detainee “who has waived his right to counsel may not
have understood his right”, or “if the police undermine the legal advice that
the detainee has received” (para. 52). Although these categories are not
“closed”, it is clearly stated that “the common police tactic of gradually
revealing (actual or fake) evidence to the detainee in order to demonstrate or
exaggerate the strength of the case against him” does not “automatically
trigge[r] the right to a second consultation with a lawyer, giving rise to
renewed s. 10 (b) rights” (para. 60). In my view, we are not talking
here of “renewed” or revivified s. 10 (b) rights. Until the lawyer is
aware in at least a general way of the unfolding case being put to his or her
client, the lawyer may be in no position to render — and the detainee may not
receive — “l’assistance d’un avocat” in any meaningful sense.
[98] What
now appears to be licensed as a result of the “interrogation trilogy” is that
an individual (presumed innocent) may be detained and isolated for questioning
by the police for at least five or six hours without reasonable recourse to a
lawyer, during which time the officers can brush aside assertions of the right
to silence or demands to be returned to his or her cell, in an endurance
contest in which the police interrogators, taking turns with one another, hold
all the important legal cards.
[99] In Oickle
and Singh, and again in this case, the majority opinion emphasizes the
important societal interest in resolving crimes. This, of course, is a very
valid consideration, but society also intends crimes to be solved in a
framework that respects civil liberties and the fairness of the justice
system: R. v. Black, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 138; and R. v. Brydges,
[1990] 1 S.C.R. 190. This includes “l’assistance d’un avocat”. For
reasons already given, I do not believe the majority approach in this case
reaches the threshold of meaningful assistance.
The
Appellant’s More Expansive Approach to Section 10 (b)
[100]
The appellant would interpret s. 10 (b) to give the lawyer a place
in the interrogation room. This may be of interest to rich people (as Legal
Aid across the country is in no position to fund such a service), but it is not
clear what role the lawyer would play. Would the lawyer participate actively
by vetting and objecting to questions and demanding “clarifications” or sit
there like the proverbial potted plant? The former role risks bringing the
tactics of the courtroom into the preliminaries of a police interrogation.
There would be no judge present to referee clashes between the defence lawyer
and the police interrogator (who might then understandably complicate matters
further by involving a Crown Attorney).
[101]
The appellant invokes Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966), at
p. 469, where the U.S. Supreme Court adopted the sweeping proposition:
The circumstances surrounding in-custody
interrogation can operate very quickly to overbear the will of one merely made
aware of his privilege by his interrogators. Therefore, the right to have
counsel present at the interrogation is indispensable to the protection of the
Fifth Amendment privilege under the system we delineate today. [Emphasis
added.]
While LeBel and
Fish JJ. say that they “are not advocating the adoption of the American rules
under Miranda” (para. 201), they are clear in their view that “early
fears” raised by Miranda proved to be “unfounded” (para. 199). Whatever
may be my colleagues’ eventual position (if any) on having counsel present
during custodial interrogations, my own view is that adoption of the Miranda
rule would seriously overshoot the purpose of s. 10 (b) in the Canadian
context, with its different structure of checks and balances. The need for
caution not to overshoot the purpose of s. 10 (b) was emphasized in a
somewhat different context by Lamer J. in R. v. Smith, [1989] 2 S.C.R.
368, at p. 385:
This limit on the rights of an arrested or detained
person is essential because without it, it would be possible to delay
needlessly and with impunity an investigation and even, in certain cases, to
allow for an essential piece of evidence to be lost, destroyed or rendered
impossible to obtain. The rights set out in the Charter , and in
particular the right to retain and instruct counsel, are not absolute and
unlimited rights. They must be exercised in a way that is reconcilable with
the needs of society. An arrested or detained person cannot be permitted
to hinder the work of the police by acting in a manner such that the police
cannot adequately carry out their tasks. [Emphasis added.]
No doubt, a
defence counsel sitting mute in the interrogation room would be better informed
than one who is excluded, but the potential “to delay needlessly and with
impunity” cannot be doubted by anyone who has experienced the disruptive force
of even a moderately aggressive lawyer in a civil examination for discovery (a
proceeding that is also un-refereed). Of course, the detainee (unlike the
civil litigant) has a right to silence, but there is no corresponding
obligation of silence placed on defence counsel. My colleagues LeBel and Fish
JJ. rightly observe that police interrogations in a criminal case are not
analogous to a civil examination for discovery (para. 173). Yes, the settings
are different, but the potential for disruption is comparable.
[102]
I do not suggest that defence counsel would deliberately abuse a right
of access. I say only that inviting them into the interrogation room would, in
my view, interpret s. 10 (b) rights in a way that would excessively
undermine the ability of the police to “adequately carry out their tasks”.
[103]
Of course, nothing prevents Parliament from regulating the presence of
counsel at a police interrogation, but in jurisdictions where this has been
done, the legislature has generally taken care to spell out the applicable
circumstances, e.g. the Australian Commonwealth Crimes Act 1914, Part
IC, ss. 23G and 23L; the New South Wales Law Enforcement (Powers and
Responsibilities) Act 2002, s. 123; the Queensland Police Powers and
Responsibilities Act 2000; the English Police and Criminal Evidence Act
1984, 1984, c. 60, ss. 58 and 66; and related Practice Codes (including
Code C — Code of Practice for the Detention, Treatment and Questioning of
Persons by Police Officers), and the English Criminal Justice and Public
Order Act 1994, 1994, c. 33. Our Parliament and/or the provincial
legislatures have not seen fit to introduce similar measures within their
respective areas of jurisdiction.
Undershooting
the Section 10 (b) Right
[104]
That said, I believe the majority view expressed by the Chief Justice
and Charron J. undershoots the right. Their interpretation presupposes
that a detainee is faced with a stark binary choice between cooperation and
non-cooperation, whereas a properly informed detainee may choose to cooperate
with the police in whole or in part on some issues but not on others. A
lawyer’s “one size fits all” instruction to a detained individual to keep quiet
and decline to cooperate may turn out to be terrible advice. As more
information is put to the detainee in the course of the interrogation regarding
the date, time, and circumstances of the offence, for example, it may emerge
that he has an alibi but he will fail to disclose it — because the lawyer told
him over the phone to say nothing — despite the fact it would be in the
detainee’s interest to make such disclosure immediately. It may turn out — by
way of another example — that there are a number of co-accused, in which case
offering some additional information to lay the basis for an exculpatory
“cutthroat” defence may be preferable to silence. Other facts may come to
light giving the detainee a new interest in providing an explanation where
previously the detainee declined to cooperate. There will be many matters
unknown to the lawyer (and perhaps to the detainee) in their initial
conversation. Preliminary advice might provide a snapshot of the applicable
law and is, of course, a good start, but it hardly discharges the detainee’s
right to meaningful legal “assistance”.
[105]
There exists an intermediate position that would allow the detainee reasonable
access to legal advice from time to time in the course of a police
interrogation (which in this case, as stated, lasted about five hours) without
defence counsel being actually present in the interrogation room. The Crown
argues that any such approach would create difficult issues of line drawing for
police interrogators: When should further consultation be allowed? When can it
be delayed? How frequently is “reasonable”? The fact is, however, that unless
the detainee is to have a constitutional right unilaterally to stop police
questioning at any time merely by indicating a wish to speak to counsel (again)
— a position which in my view tilts the balance too far against the community
interest in law enforcement — it is inevitable that the police are going to
have to make the reasonableness judgment in the first instance. I do not see
this as deeply problematic. Police deal with “reasonableness” issues all the
time. It is one of the organizing principles that govern their professional
work. Various factors can provide guidance, as will be discussed. What is not
acceptable, in my view, is to read down the s. 10 (b) right for the
purpose of making it easier for the police to administer it.
Grounds for
Further Consultation
[106]
What gives grounds for a further consultation will depend on the
evolving circumstances. The police are not, in my opinion, required to shut
down their interrogation simply because the detainee expresses a desire to
consult again with counsel as seemingly advocated by my colleagues LeBel and
Fish JJ. (para. 177). On the other hand, the need for a further consultation
(and thus a suspension but not a termination of the interrogation) may arise, I
believe, in circumstances beyond those contemplated by my colleagues the Chief
Justice and Charron J. I accept that the detainee’s request must be for the
purpose of the s. 10 (b) right — i.e. related to the need for legal
assistance — and not simply to delay or distract from the sort of police
interrogation approved in Oickle and Singh. Moreover,
justification for such additional consultation(s) must find objective support
in factors which would include (but are not limited to):
1. The extent of prior contact with
counsel. Was it an extended consultation or a cursory telephone call?
2. The length of the interview at the
time of the request. A request made after an hour of questioning may carry
more weight than one made as soon as the questioning begins.
3. The extent of other information
(true or false) provided by the police to the detainee about the case during
the interrogation, which may reasonably suggest to the detainee that the advice
in the initial consultation may have been overtaken by events.
4. The existence of exigent or urgent
circumstances that militate against any delay in the interrogation.
5. Whether an issue of a legal nature
has arisen in the course of the interrogation, e.g. if the police bring forward
“similar fact” occurrences allegedly involving the detainee, he or she might
legitimately want to understand how a response to questions on those collateral
events might impact potential liability on the crime charged.
6. The mental and physical condition
of the detainee, including signs of fatigue or confusion, to the extent that
this is or ought to be apparent to the interrogator.
[107]
The Chief Justice and Charron J. argue that their truncated
interpretation of s. 10 (b) would be easier for the police to
administer. No doubt, this is true. Rights during an interrogation will be
harder to administer than no rights. My colleagues state:
Finally, the proposed test is so vague that it is
impractical. No doubt, courts over the years would sort out these problems as
best they can. But these efforts will leave a trail of Charter motions,
appeals and second trials in their wake. [para. 59]
This
“floodgates” argument, also advocated by the Crown, has been rejected in
numerous Charter contexts notwithstanding that the elaboration of Charter
rights have generally left in their wake “a trail of Charter motions,
appeals and second trials”. The Charter is framed in general
language. Litigation is inevitable. The criminal justice system might well
work more smoothly and efficiently from the crime-stopper’s perspective if we
had no Charter , but so long as we do have a Charter, s. 10 (b)
like other Charter rights should be given a broad interpretation
consistent with its purpose. If it takes time to work out its proper
amplitude, so be it.
[108]
Is the test suggested above vague and impractical? “Reasonableness” is
a constitutional standard that is widely employed and is familiar to the
police. Officers regularly consult with Crown counsel and have experience in
determining when taking counsel is reasonably necessary. The police are
regularly involved in search and seizure activity; yet s. 8 of the Charter ,
they know, protects only against “unreasonable search or seizure”. In
the case of a warrantless search, the Crown must establish that the manner in
which the police carried out the search was reasonable: R. v.
Collins, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 265, at p. 278. The police must, therefore,
determine in the first instance the extent of the rights of the individuals
they wish to search. Even within s. 10 (b) the police will often be
required to decide whether a detainee has exercised reasonable diligence
in the initial exercise of his s. 10 (b) rights. The police must wait a reasonable
time for the detainee to get in touch with counsel before proceeding with
questioning. The police deal routinely with these and other aspects of
“reasonableness”, and I see no reason why they should not be capable of
treating s. 10 (b) reasonableness in relation to a demand for further
consultation with counsel with the same level of professionalism.
[109]
The existence of a s. 10 (b) right creates a correlative duty (or
responsibility) on the part of the police to respect and implement that right.
However, as mentioned at the outset, there seems to be a certain dissonance
emerging in the court’s view of the police capacity for judgment when it comes
to the determination (in the first instance) of their own previously
unrecognized powers at common law (see, e.g., R. v. Clayton, 2007
SCC 32, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 725), and police capacity in making determinations (in
the first instance) about their duties and responsibilities.
[110]
In the recent case of R. v. Waugh, 2010 ONCA 100, 251 C.C.C. (3d)
139, a police officer decided that he had the power to impound a motor vehicle
he believed to be uninsured. He had no statutory authority to do so. The
correctness of the police decision to seize the car, accordingly, fell to be
decided under the Dedman/Waterfield test (R. v. Waterfield,
[1963] 3 All E.R. 659 (C.C.A.)), which incorporates two rather vague criteria,
namely (1) did the police conduct in question fall within the “general scope of
any duty imposed by statute or recognized at common law”, and (2) did such
conduct “albeit within the general scope of such a duty, involv[e] an
unjustifiable use of powers associated with the duty” (para. 26)? Blair J.A.,
for the Ontario Court of Appeal, conceded that:
the common law has never explicitly recognized the authority of the
police to tow a vehicle as deriving from their general police duties. However,
I see no reason why that should not be the case provided the Dedman/Waterfield
test is met in the circumstances and provided the police act reasonably and
prudently. Here, in my view, the test is met and the police acted reasonably
and prudently. [para. 27]
(There’s that
“reasonably” word linked to police judgment again!) The Dedman/Waterfield test
poses quite an abstract assessment for the police to make when deciding if they
can seize a motor vehicle (Waugh), or blockade the parking lot of a
strip club based on a 9-1-1 gun call (Clayton), or initiate a random
road stop without statutory authority (Dedman), or detain someone on the
street for questioning even if the police possess no reasonable and probable
grounds to believe that the person was involved in criminal activity (R. v.
Mann, 2004 SCC 52, [2004] 3 S.C.R. 59). In all these cases, the police
made the initial determination of their previously unrecognized powers, and the
courts held that the police got it right.
[111]
My colleagues LeBel and Fish JJ. object to this “intermediate position”
on s. 10 (b) with the argument that the exercise of the right to counsel
“cannot be made to depend on an interrogator’s opinion” (para. 172), and “we do
not accept that fresh access to counsel is limited to situations where the
police interrogator is satisfied either that there has been a material
change in circumstances, or that the request is not made in an effort to delay
or distract” (para. 179 (emphasis in original)). This is a curious argument.
In every interaction between the police and the citizen, the police have to
assess, in the first instance, the limits of their authority and the extent of
the rights and liberties sought to be exercised by the person they are dealing
with. This is true of the individual’s right to drive out of a parking lot (Clayton),
resist a body search (Mann), or walk away from a police officer despite
the command: “Wait a minute. I need to talk to you before you go anywhere” (R.
v. Suberu, 2009 SCC 33, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 460, at para. 9). Equally, short
of inserting a judge (as well as defence counsel) into the police interrogation
room, it will always be for the interrogator to determine in the first
instance whether the s. 10 (b) right is invoked reasonably. The
alternative is to allow the detainee to shut down the interrogation simply by
uttering the magic words, “I want to speak to my lawyer NOW”, a form of
unilateral control by the detainee seemingly embraced by my colleagues LeBel
and Fish JJ., at para. 177.
[112]
While I agreed with the dissent of Fish J. in Singh, I do not see
the proper role of s. 10 (b) as a trump card to be played against the
majority judgment in Singh by giving the detainee the power under s. 10 (b)
to unilaterally bring a halt to the custodial interrogation in a way that
Singh’s repeated assertion of a desire to return to his cell failed to
accomplish. Section 10 (b) should be understood and construed in its own
terms and for its own purposes. The result of my colleagues’ interpretation is
to make the detainee the sole judge of further consultations with counsel even
if, viewed objectively, such demands are made whimsically or capriciously.
[113]
In my view, the police are entitled in the first instance to assess the
objective circumstances surrounding the s. 10 (b) request. Their
assessment is always reviewable by a judge, in the fullness of time, and with
the luxury of hindsight. If the police have got it wrong, the prosecution will
pay the price.
[114]
I cannot think that the police assessment of whether a detainee’s
request to consult counsel falls within the purpose of s. 10 (b) — access
to proper legal assistance — is any more difficult than whether setting up a
random road stop falls within the general concept of police “duty”. Nor is
determining whether access to counsel is justified by the objective
circumstances of the interrogation any more difficult to assess than whether
the existence of the police power to blockade the parking lot of a strip club
is “unjustifiable”. In Clayton, moreover, a majority of the Court held
that police powers thus defined will necessarily be “consistent with Charter
values” because justification for the police conduct under the Dedman/Waterfield
test focusses on “whether the interference with liberty is necessary given the
extent of the risk and the liberty at stake, and no more intrusive to liberty
than reasonably necessary to address the risk” (para. 21 (emphasis
added)). If the police are handed the task of making such on-the-spot judgment
calls “reasonably necessary” in relation to previously unrecognized police
powers, why is it beyond police capacity to assess their responsibilities in
the course of a custodial interrogation? Why are general criteria satisfactory
for police to assess their powers but “so vague” as to be “impractical” in
relation to their duty to respect a detainee’s right to counsel? The answer is
that police are quite capable of making both types of judgment calls in the
first instance.
[115]
I agree with my colleagues the Chief Justice and Charron J. that “[n]o
doubt, courts over the years would sort out these problems as best they can”
(para. 59). This is so — just as the courts (and police) have sorted out (and
continue to sort out) every other Charter problem “as best they can”.
The essential fairness of our system of justice is at stake in police
interrogations. We should not be dissuaded from giving the s. 10 (b)
right its full expression by the Crown’s invocation of a bright line for
ease of administration.
Application
to the Facts of This Case
[116]
The relevant facts are set out in the majority opinion. For my
purposes, it is important to note that about half way through the interrogation
(i.e. after about two and a half hours of questioning), Sgt. Skrine gave an
account of how he thought the appellant, while intoxicated, had killed the
victim in a blind rage. He said “[t]he evidence here is absolutely
overwhelming”, but he didn’t say what it was. He claimed (falsely) the
existence of incriminating DNA at the crime scene. The appellant’s responses
were non-committal. When Sgt. Skrine told the appellant that he shouldn’t take
the interview lightly, the appellant said:
Sinclair: I don’t take any of this lightly.
That’s at least I’m not sure, I’m not talking right now and I wanna see my
lawyer and stuff but like I don’t take anything you’re saying lightly.
[Emphasis added; Supp. A.R., at p. 58.]
[117]
A few minutes later, the police officer again hammered home the message
that further resistance would be futile:
Skrine: . . . Maybe you’re sitting there with some glimmer of
hope. Some glimmer of hope that this is all gonna go away. But it’s not. It is
not gonna go away. You are done. The evidence here is absolutely
overwhelming. Absolutely overwhelming. And you can’t change that. The
only questions left are why.
Sinclair: I want my lawyer to look through all that.
Skrine: Your lawyer’s gonna get all that. [Emphasis
added; Supp. A.R., at p. 59.]
But of course
Sgt. Skrine did not intend the lawyer to “get all that” until after the
appellant’s confession was in the bag. Then, again, a little further on:
Skrine: . . . There had to be something that caused the snap. Hey?
You didn’t do this without reason, right? Hmm? Trent? You killed Gary
because you enjoy it right? Hmm? Gary? Er Trent?
Sinclair: I wanna talk to my lawyer.
Skrine: Trent you talked to your lawyer already, okay?
Sinclair: For a minute on the phone, that’s no, I wanna talk to
him when he’s . . . when I see him on Monday.
Skrine: Well you’ll have an opportunity to talk to him again, but you
already talked to him twice, okay Trent. And you know what? And nobody can
come in and make this decision for you but you.
Sinclair: When my lawyer comes. . . . [Supp.
A.R., at p. 67]
[118]
The initial refusal to allow the appellant to consult further with his
counsel did not constitute a breach. The breach occurred when after several
hours or so of suggestions (subtle and not so subtle) and argument, Sgt.
Skrine confronted the appellant with what he said was “absolutely overwhelming”
evidence linking the appellant to the crime and the appellant repeated his desire
to consult with his counsel before going further. At least in part, the
appellant must have wondered if the initial 360 seconds of legal advice was
still valid. Given the unfolding of new information up to that point in the
interview, his request to speak again to counsel was reasonable, and the police
refusal of that further consultation was, in my view, a breach of s. 10 (b).
[119]
The appellant’s subsequent admissions to the undercover officer in the
jail cell were “part of the same transaction or course of conduct” as the
statement to Sgt. Skrine (R. v. Wittwer, 2008 SCC 33, [2008] 2 S.C.R.
235, at para. 21) and were thus tainted, because the appellant’s reason for
confessing to the undercover officer was explicitly linked to the fact that he
had just given himself up in the interrogation room: “They’ve got me, the body,
the sheets, the blood, the fibres on the carpet, witnesses. I’m going away for
a long time but I feel relieved” (trial judge, at para. 40). The same is true
of the re-enactment. Without the initial statement to Sgt. Skrine, it would not
have taken place. This causal connection is sufficient to establish the
requisite link.
[120]
In sum, the statement to the undercover officer and the evidence
produced by the re-enactment cannot be separated from the earlier breach of s.
10 (b) and were therefore obtained in breach of the Charter .
[121]
I would have excluded the evidence under s. 24(2) in light of the
general presumption of exclusion of unconstitutionally obtained statements: R.
v. Grant, 2009 SCC 32, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 353.
[122]
In my view, the appeal should be allowed and a new trial ordered.
The reasons of LeBel, Fish and Abella JJ. were delivered by
LeBel and Fish JJ. (dissenting)
—
I. Overview
[123]
This case concerns the reasonable limits that can be placed on the
effective exercise by detainees of their constitutionally entrenched right to
counsel, in the face of relentless custodial interrogation. At its core, it
again raises the question “whether ‘no’ means ‘yes’ where a police interrogator
refuses to take ‘no’ for an answer from a detainee under his total control” (R.
v. Singh, 2007 SCC 48, [2007] 3 S.C.R. 405, at para. 55).
[124]
As we shall later explain, the right to counsel is inextricably bound up
with, although not subsumed by, the right to silence. One supports the other,
particularly in the context of custodial interrogation and, more particularly
still, where a detainee who has repeatedly invoked his right to silence is
systematically denied access to counsel by a determined police officer who
relentlessly pursues the interrogation of the detainee under his total control
“in an effort to get [the detainee] to confess, no matter what” (Singh,
at para. 59 (emphasis in original)). At its core, that is what this appeal is
about: The focus in Singh was on the right to silence; our concern in
this case is with the right to counsel. Both rights are constitutionally
guaranteed. We know from experience that, in the context of custodial
interrogations, you can’t have one without the other.
[125]
We disagree with the disposition proposed by the Chief Justice and
Charron J. Moreover, we do not agree with their analysis of the scope and
purpose of the s. 10 (b) right to counsel in the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms . A proper understanding of this right should
acknowledge that it is far broader than their reasons indicate, and reflects
the role that counsel plays in the life of the law, the protection of the rule
of law and, particularly, in the administration of criminal justice. In
essence, our colleagues’ approach also subjects the exercise of the right to
consult counsel to a detainee’s successful demonstration, to the satisfaction
of the police, that there have been fresh developments amounting to a material
or substantial change in jeopardy. We are concerned, too, that their
conclusion tends to erode the very basic principles of Canadian criminal law,
particularly the protection against self-incrimination and the presumption of
innocence.
[126]
We therefore hold that Mr. Sinclair’s constitutionally protected right
to counsel was infringed in this case, because his police interrogators
prevented him from obtaining the legal advice to which he was entitled. In our
view, the detainee’s access to legal advice would have mitigated the impact of
the interrogating officer’s relentless and skilful efforts to obtain a
confession.
[127]
Furthermore, we find that this breach of the appellant’s right to
counsel was particularly serious. It cannot be characterized as minor or
technical. On the contrary, it went to the core of the self‑incrimination
interest, which s. 10 (b) is meant to protect. The breach also impacted
on other interests that s. 10 (b) is likewise meant to reflect and
safeguard, notably the vital role of counsel under our legal system,
particularly in the criminal law context.
[128]
These conclusions are entirely consistent with the fundamental
principles governing the administration of justice in Canada. Under our system
of criminal justice, the state bears the sole burden of proving the guilt of
the accused. This basic precept finds expression in the presumption of
innocence and the right to silence. Both rights are constitutionally
protected. It follows inexorably that a detainee under police control (or any
accused person, for that matter) is under no obligation to cooperate with a
police investigation or to participate in an interrogation. To suggest that
detainees must in any such way assist the state in securing their conviction
and punishment, or otherwise expose themselves to an enhanced risk of
self-incrimination, is to turn our system of criminal justice on its head. It
effectively recognizes a new police power of virtually unfettered access, for
the purposes of endless interrogation, to custodial detainees who have chosen
to remain silent.
[129]
We do not take issue with the right of the police to continue their
investigation where an accused wishes to consult with counsel, before
submitting to further custodial interrogation. But that is not the question
that concerns us here. The police can continue their investigation as they see
fit, but not in violation of, or with disregard for, the constitutional rights
of detainees.
[130]
Clearly, everyone who is not detained is entitled to consult with
counsel before responding to police questioning. On what principle should
detainees, whose right to counsel is constitutionally guaranteed because they
are under total police control and therefore more vulnerable to pressure and
manipulation, be deprived of that very same protection? Surely, the detainee
cannot be said to subvert the investigative process by exercising either their
right to consult with counsel, their right to silence, or both.
II. The Facts, Briefly
[131]
We largely agree with the summary of the facts in this appeal provided
by the Chief Justice and Charron J. We think it helpful, however, to examine
more closely the chronology of the detainee’s repeated requests for counsel and
invocations of his right to silence. A close reading of the interaction
between detainee and police interrogator demonstrates the need for ongoing
assistance of counsel, in the context of the relentless custodial interrogation
that occurred in this case.
[132]
Mr. Sinclair was arrested in the early morning of December 14, 2002.
Immediately upon arrest, he was informed of his right to consult counsel. When
asked if he wished to call a lawyer, Mr. Sinclair responded: “Not right this
second” (A.R., at p. 524). He was then taken by the police to the local
RCMP detachment.
[133]
When he arrived, he was given an opportunity to call counsel. At 6:53
a.m., he contacted Mr. Janicki, a lawyer who had represented him previously.
Mr. Sinclair spoke to his lawyer for three minutes. He told the police that his
lawyer was going to call him back.
[134]
Mr. Sinclair was placed in a cell until 9:40 a.m., when Mr. Janicki
asked to speak with him. They spoke for another three minutes.
[135]
At 4:38 p.m., Mr. Sinclair was taken from his cell to the interrogation
room. He was met by Sgt. Kerry Skrine, an RCMP detective with the Major Crimes
Unit, who described himself as an experienced interrogator and a member of the
“designated interview team” (A.R., at p. 247).
[136]
After being informed of his right to silence, Mr. Sinclair said: “I
don’t have anything to say right now” (Supp. A.R., at p. 3). He told Sgt.
Skrine that he was “not saying anything or talking about anything that’s until
my lawyer’s around and he tells me what’s going on and stuff” (A.R., at p.
542). With regard to Mr. Sinclair’s request to have his lawyer present during
the interrogation, Sgt. Skrine stated that “the law in this country anyway is
that . . . you do not have a right to have a lawyer present with you,
okay, while you’re being interviewed by the police” (A.R., at p. 542).
[137]
Despite Mr. Sinclair’s categorically expressed and reiterated decision
not to speak to the police interrogator, Sgt. Skrine continued to interrogate
him.
[138]
Mr. Sinclair objected to the continued questioning:
What are these
questions, like, I’m just not feeling comfortable not having a lawyer around.
Like you say I don’t have a right to have a lawyer in the room while I’m being
questioned and I don’t think that make doesn’t even make sense in my head.
. . .
I feel I
should have my lawyer present while any type of questioning goes on like . . .
. . .
Like if you
were reverse the scenario, and it was you in this chair . . .
. . .
I think you’d wanna have a lawyer present. You guys are looking at
putting me away for the rest of my life. [A.R., at p. 546]
[139]
Sgt. Skrine persisted with the interview, slowly moving from
uncontroversial topics, such as Mr. Sinclair’s relationship with his siblings
and tobacco preferences, to his complicity in the killing of Mr. Grice.
[140]
During the course of his five-hour interrogation, each accusatory
statement or claim that the evidence against him was overwhelming was met with
a consistent response from Mr. Sinclair: a request to speak to his lawyer or to
have his lawyer present during questioning. These requests were firmly and
systematically rebuffed.
[141]
Sgt. Skrine stated that the police had spoken with witnesses who had
directly implicated Mr. Sinclair in the murder, and then pressed Mr. Sinclair
to confess. Mr. Sinclair responded as follows:
Skrine: You didn’t do this without reason, right? Hmm? Trent?
You killed Gary because you enjoy it right? Hmm? . . . Trent?
Sinclair: I wanna talk to my lawyer.
Skrine: Trent you talked to your lawyer already, okay?
Sinclair: For a minute on the phone, that’s no, I wanna talk to
him when he’s when I see him on Monday.
Skrine: Well you’ll have an opportunity to talk to him again,
but you already talked to him twice, okay Trent. And you know what? And nobody
can come in and make this decision for you but you.
Sinclair: When my lawyer comes . . . [A.R., at
p. 607]
[142]
Shortly afterwards, Sgt. Skrine left the interview room. When he
returned, he continued to press Mr. Sinclair to confess to the killing. Sgt.
Skrine told Mr. Sinclair that the police had found bedding from the hotel (they
had) and had identified Mr. Sinclair’s DNA on the bedding (they had not)
(Supp. A.R., at p. 85).
[143]
Immediately after Sgt. Skrine revealed these two pieces of evidence,
Mr. Sinclair declared, “You got me I know it . . .” (Supp. A.R., at p.
85). He proceeded to confess in detail to the murder of Gary Grice.
[144]
When Mr. Sinclair returned to his cell, five hours after his first
request to again consult with counsel, he spoke to his cellmate about the
interrogation. Unbeknownst to Mr. Sinclair, he was speaking to an undercover
officer, Cst. Sergio L. B. Dasilva. Mr. Sinclair told him, “They’ve got
me, the body, the sheets, the blood, the fibres on the carpet, witnesses. I’m
going away for a long time but I feel relieved” (Frankel J.A., 2008 BCCA 127,
252 B.C.A.C. 288, at para. 23).
III. Analysis
A. The Text
of Section 10 (b)
[145]
Relying on R. v. Logan (1988), 46 C.C.C. (3d) 354 (Ont. C.A.), the
Chief Justice and Charron J. maintain that the phrase “upon arrest or
detention” indicates a single point in time, not a continuum (para. 44). This
interpretation also formed the basis of the judgment below (Frankel J.A., at
para. 48). With respect, we disagree with this narrow reading of s. 10 (b).
[146]
We will first examine the English provision and then turn to its French
counterpart. Section 10 (b) of the Charter provides: “Everyone
has the right on arrest or detention . . . to retain and instruct counsel
without delay and to be informed of that right.” The French version reads: “Chacun
a le droit, en cas d’arrestation ou de détention . . . d’avoir recours sans
délai à l’assistance d’un avocat et d’être informé de ce droit.”
[147]
In our view, the plain meaning of s. 10 (b) favours an ongoing
right to the assistance of counsel. The words “retain” and “instruct” signify
a continuing relationship between client and counsel. On this basis alone, it
is difficult to see how the s. 10 (b) right could be “spent” upon its
initial exercise.
[148]
Nor does the phrase “on arrest or detention” limit s. 10 (b) to a
one-time consultation. Section 10 (b) is of course triggered “on arrest
or detention”, which ensures that the detainee is afforded an opportunity to
consult counsel as soon as possible, and certainly before any interrogation.
Indeed, as Lamer J. (later C.J.) put it in R. v. Manninen, [1987] 1
S.C.R. 1233, at p. 1243: “For the right to counsel to be effective, the
detainee must have access to this advice before he is questioned or otherwise
required to provide evidence.”
[149]
However, it hardly follows that the s. 10 (b) right, though
triggered by a detention, is spent upon this initial consultation. If it were,
defence counsel across the country would soon find themselves without a thing
to do. In this sense, the Chief Justice and Charron J.’s view that s. 10 (b)
is spent upon the initial exercise of course conflicts with the right to
counsel at trial (see, e.g., R. v. Rowbotham (1988), 41 C.C.C. (3d) 1
(Ont. C.A.)) and, in some circumstances, on appeal (Criminal Code,
R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46, s. 684(1) ). Section 10 (b) does not create for the
detainee a black hole between the time of arrest or detention, and the detainee’s
first appearance before a judge.
[150]
This interpretation is bolstered by a reading of the French text. As
Lamer J. (as he then was) explained in R. v. Collins, [1987] 1 S.C.R.
265, at p. 287, when faced with diverging French and English versions of a Charter
provision, the Court should employ a purposive approach and adopt the
interpretation “which better protects that right”.
[151]
The French version of s. 10 (b) bolsters our interpretation,
despite differing from the English version in two minor, yet significant ways.
First, instead of the right to “retain and instruct counsel”, the French
provision guarantees detainees the right to “l’assistance d’un avocat”.
Second, the French version states that the right is triggered “en cas
d’arrestation”, and not “on arrest”.
[152]
As Mr. Sinclair submits, the term “l’assistance” connotes a
broader role for legal counsel than simply providing the advice to keep
quiet. Accordingly, the “assistance” of counsel cannot be confined
to a single consultation followed by a lengthy interrogation during which the
detainee is held virtually incommunicado. If this were the case, then we also
agree with the Ontario Criminal Lawyers’ Association that this could be
accomplished by a recorded message on an answering service. And if the Chief
Justice and Charron J. agree that the right to counsel cannot be reduced to a
simple phone message, then it is difficult to understand how they can endorse
an interpretation of the right to “retain and instruct counsel” that would simply
replace the recorded message with a one-minute telephone call to the same
effect.
[153]
“[E]n cas de” can be translated into English as “in the event of”
(Collins-Robert French-English, English-French Dictionary (2nd ed.
1987), at p. 102, “cas”). Therefore, unlike with “on arrest”, there is
no possible connotation of a singular occurrence or a “point in time”. Instead
“en cas d’arrestation ou de détention” implies a triggering event —
arrest or detention — which then results in a constitutionally entrenched and
prospective right to the assistance of counsel.
[154]
Accordingly, the plain meaning of s. 10 (b), in both French and
English, supports a broad application of the right to counsel, which includes
an ongoing right to consult with counsel.
B. The Purpose and Scope of the Section 10 (b)
Right to Counsel
[155]
Our textual interpretation of the s. 10 (b) right is supported by
both the purpose and the scope of s. 10 (b). Canadian criminal law is
premised on several animating, normative principles, including the presumption
of innocence, the protection against self-incrimination, and the right to
silence. These principles have all attained constitutional status, reflected
in ss. 11 (c), 11 (d) and 13 of the Charter , as well as in
the residual protection found in s. 7 .
[156]
The presumption of innocence, described as the “one golden thread” that
runs “[t]hroughout the web of the English Criminal Law” (Woolmington v.
Director of Public Prosecutions, [1935] A.C. 462 (H.L.), at p. 481, per
Lord Sankey), was recognized by this Court as the “single most important
organizing principle in criminal law” (R. v. P. (M.B.), [1994] 1 S.C.R.
555, at p. 577). Now constitutionally entrenched in s. 11 (d) of the Charter ,
the presumption of innocence ensures that the state must meet its heavy burden
before an accused person will be subjected to the consequences of a criminal
conviction:
In light of
the gravity of these consequences, the presumption of innocence is crucial. It
ensures that until the State proves an accused’s guilt beyond all reasonable
doubt, he or she is innocent. This is essential in a society committed to
fairness and social justice. The presumption of innocence confirms our faith in
humankind; it reflects our belief that individuals are decent and law-abiding
members of the community until proven otherwise.
(R. v. Oakes, [1986] 1 S.C.R. 103, at p. 120, per Dickson
C.J.)
[157]
The presumption of innocence is closely related to the protection
against self-incrimination. If the presumption of innocence places a burden on
the state alone to prove the accused’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, then it
follows that the accused cannot be made to offer evidence or information that
would assist the state in that endeavour. Thus, the right against self-incrimination
simply confirms that there is no obligation on the part of a suspect to assist,
in any way whatsoever, in the investigation against them:
The core idea
of the principle is that when the state uses its power to prosecute an
individual for a criminal offence, the individual ought not to be required to
assist the state in the investigation or trial of the offence.
(Hamish
Stewart, “The Confessions Rule and the Charter ” (2009), 54 McGill
L.J. 517, at pp. 520-21)
[158]
The right to silence is the last piece in this system of pre-trial
procedural protections. In Rothman v. The Queen, [1981] 1 S.C.R. 640,
Lamer J. provided this quintessential articulation:
In Canada the right of a suspect not to say anything
to the police . . . is merely the exercise by him of the general right enjoyed
in this country by anyone to do whatever one pleases, saying what one pleases
or choosing not to say certain things, unless obliged to do otherwise by law.
It is because no law says that a suspect, save in certain circumstances, must
say anything to the police that we say that he has the right to remain silent,
which is a positive way of explaining that there is on his part no legal
obligation to do otherwise. [p. 683]
See also R.
v. Turcotte, 2005 SCC 50, [2005] 2 S.C.R. 519, at para. 41, per
Abella J.
[159]
The right to silence, the right against self-incrimination, and the
presumption of innocence are interrelated principles and the core values that
animate the administration of criminal justice in Canada. They work together
to ensure that suspects are never obligated to participate in building the case
against them. As this Court has noted time and again, the ability of an
accused to exercise these fundamental rights is dependent upon the assistance
of counsel.
[160]
The Chief Justice and Charron J. assert that the s. 10 (b) right
has the narrow purpose of ensuring that detainees are able to effectively
assert their right to silence and, by extension, secure their right against
self-incrimination. We agree that the overarching purpose of the right to
counsel lies in the protection against compelled self-incrimination, and
extends to the custodial context in order to make the detainee’s choice whether
to speak to the police a meaningful one. This, in turn, preserves “fairness”
in the investigative process, or at least fosters that objective: R. v.
Bartle, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 173.
[161]
However, in our view, the role of counsel in the administration of
criminal justice, and under s. 10 (b), is much broader. Our view is
shaped by what we see as a proper appreciation of the role of counsel within
the justice system generally. Lawyers are bound by their oath of office, by
the rules that govern their profession and by their status as officers of the
court. They must ensure that the interests of their clients, however zealously
advocated, remain subject to society’s interest in ensuring the orderly and
ethical resolution of legal disputes: see Fortin v. Chrétien, 2001 SCC
45, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 500.
[162]
This Court has long emphasized the essential role that lawyers “are
expected to play in the administration of justice and the upholding of the rule
of law in Canadian society” (Lavallee, Rackel & Heintz v. Canada
(Attorney General), 2002 SCC 61, [2002] 3 S.C.R. 209, at para. 64, per
LeBel J., dissenting, but not on this point. See also Andrews v. Law
Society of British Columbia, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 143, at p. 187; British
Columbia (Attorney General) v. Christie, 2007 SCC 21, [2007] 1 S.C.R. 873,
at para. 22.)
[163]
This role is no different in the criminal context, and applies to the
defence of the criminal accused no less than to landlords, tenants, separating
or divorcing partners, employers and employees and all others whose opposing
rights or interests are subjected to litigation or legal scrutiny. However,
the obligations of the lawyer extend beyond his or her client, and mandate a
role that is “vital to the maintenance of order in our society and the due
administration of the law in the interest of the whole community” (Andrews,
at p. 188). Rather than having a detrimental effect on the administration of
criminal justice, the role played by lawyers actually furthers and ensures the
proper administration of justice.
[164]
As Gonthier J. affirmed in Fortin, the lawyer’s role as officer
of the court extends to the pre‑litigation stage: “As an officer of the
court, the advocate plays an essential role in our justice system, in
representing the rights of litigants before the courts, but also at the
preceding stage of settling disputes” (para. 54). In the criminal context, the
advice of counsel is even more important at the pre‑charge stage.
[165]
When a person is detained but not yet charged, the events that follow
will determine whether that person can properly be charged and prosecuted. If
that person is in fact charged, what occurred at the pre-charge stage will
likely influence the nature of the proceedings that follow. The detainee,
under total police control and isolated from family and friends, is
particularly vulnerable.
[166]
Upon arrest, the suspect will be subject to skilled and persistent
interrogation, as occurred in this case. Confronted by bits and pieces of
incriminating “evidence”, conjectural or real, the detainee may be wrongly
persuaded that maintaining his or her right of silence is a futile endeavour:
that the advice to remain silent originally provided by counsel is now
unsound. Through ignorance of the consequences, the detainee may feel bound to
make an incriminatory statement to which the police are not by law entitled.
In what may seem counterintuitive to the detainee without legal training, it is
often better to remain silent in the face of the “evidence” proffered, leaving
it to the court to determine its cogency and admissibility, and forego the
inevitable temptation to end the interrogation by providing the inculpatory
statement sought by the interrogators.
[167]
Access to counsel is therefore of critical importance at this stage to
ensure, insofar as possible, that the detainee’s constitutional rights are
respected and provide the sense of security that legal representation is
intended to afford. However, it is also in society’s interest that
constitutional rights be respected at the pre-trial stage, as doing so ensures
the integrity of the criminal process from start to finish. In these
circumstances, counsel’s advice is not simply a matter of reiterating the
detainee’s right to silence, but also to explain why and how that
right should be, and can be, effectively exercised. In other words, the lawyer
not only tells the detainee not to speak but, perhaps more importantly, why
he ought not to.
[168]
The assistance of counsel is a right granted not only to detainees under
s. 10 (b) of the Charter , but a right granted to every accused by
the common law, the Criminal Code and ss. 7 and 11 (d) of the Charter .
It is not just a right to the assistance of counsel, but to the effective
assistance of counsel, and one that this Court has characterized “as a
principle of fundamental justice” (R. v. G.D.B., 2000 SCC 22, [2000] 1
S.C.R. 520, at para. 24, per Major J.).
[169]
Like the right to silence, this right has not been granted to suspects
and to persons accused of crime on the condition that it not be exercised
when they are most in need of its protection — notably at the stage of
custodial interrogation, when they are particularly vulnerable and in an acute
state of jeopardy.
[170]
As mentioned above, the Chief Justice and Charron J. would subject a
detainee’s request to consult with counsel, made during the course of an
interrogation, to a requirement, in essence, that there have been, in some
form, a material or substantial change in jeopardy in the eyes of police
interrogators. The limitations they propose are inconsistent with the text and
purpose of s. 10(b). They are also inconsistent with the broader and
indispensable role of counsel in the administration of criminal justice.
Giving s. 10(b) the requisite large and liberal interpretation leads us
to a principled disagreement with our colleagues that the effective exercise of
the s. 10(b) right does not require greater access to counsel, on the
part of detainees, in the custodial setting.
C. The “Intermediate Position” of Binnie J.
[171]
We recognize that the reasons of our colleague Binnie J. are meant to
expand the protections afforded by s. 10(b). Building on precedent that
has recognized the right of detainees to consult counsel whenever they face a
material change in jeopardy, our colleague would permit detainees to do so,
upon request, but only where there is a genuine need for consultation and not
where the request is made for the purpose of delay or distraction (para. 80).
Our colleague then sets out a detailed list of factors to guide police
interrogators in determining whether there is “objective support” for the
detainee’s request (para. 106).
[172]
In our view, the right to counsel, and by extension its meaningful
exercise, cannot be made to depend on an interrogator’s opinion in this way.
Detainees are constitutionally entitled to consult counsel without having to
persuade their interrogators that their wish to do so is valid or reasonable.
And no detainee is bound, simply because an interrogator sees no valid need for
further consultation, to submit to the unrelenting questioning of an
interrogator, bent on extracting a confession to be relied on in prosecuting
the detainee.
[173]
In support of his contention that it would be inappropriate to allow
counsel to be present during a custodial interrogation, Binnie J. notes that,
in civil examinations for discovery, the presence of counsel can be a
“disruptive force” (para. 101). While we are sure that our colleague does not
wish to draw procedural parallels between the civil and criminal justice
systems, we must reiterate that unlike in the civil process where all parties,
including the defendant, are compellable witnesses and have reciprocal
disclosure obligations, the accused in a criminal investigation enjoys a constitutionally
protected right to silence and has absolutely no obligation to assist the state
with its prosecution. This bedrock principle forms the basis of our common law
and is enshrined in the Constitution. The assistance of lawyers might be disruptive
during interrogations. But so are the presence of lawyers at trial, the right
to silence, the presumption of innocence, and the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms .
[174]
Finally, we wish to address the application of Lamer J.’s comment in R.
v. Smith, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 368, at p. 385 (cited at para. 101 of Binnie J.’s
reasons and at para. 58 of the Chief Justice and Charron J.’s reasons):
This limit on the rights of an arrested or detained
person is essential because without it, it would be possible to delay
needlessly and with impunity an investigation and even, in certain cases, to
allow for an essential piece of evidence to be lost, destroyed or rendered
impossible to obtain. The rights set out in the Charter , and in
particular the right to retain and instruct counsel, are not absolute and
unlimited rights. They must be exercised in a way that is reconcilable with
the needs of society. An arrested or detained person cannot be permitted to
hinder the work of the police by acting in a manner such that the police cannot
adequately carry out their tasks.
[175]
We note that in Smith, the detainee had unequivocally waived his
right to counsel. The language used by Lamer J. should not be extended to the
present appeal, where the detainee not only exercised his right to counsel
once, but consistently maintained that he wished to reconsult his lawyer.
[176]
The close connection between the right to counsel and the right to
silence is manifest in the context of custodial interrogations, where the
police, as we have seen time and time again, systematically deny detainees
access to counsel in order to prevent them from effectively exercising their
right to silence. This case and Singh are but two recent examples. In
both instances, a detainee under the total control of the police unequivocally
and repeatedly asserted his decision to remain silent. In both instances,
their interrogators ignored the detainees’ assertions of that constitutional
right and, in order to prevent or circumvent its effective exercise, denied the
detainees’ repeated request to consult their lawyers. To “break” or wear down
the detainees, the police officers continued to interrogate them relentlessly
for hours.
[177]
In our view, detainees who demand access to counsel before being further
subjected to relentless interrogation against their will can hardly be said to
exercise their right to counsel “whimsically or capriciously” (Binnie J., at
para. 112). They are constitutionally entitled “to speak to [their] lawyer
NOW” (para. 111) — not TOMORROW, after the police, who hold all the cards, have
won what Binnie J. aptly describes as a prolonged “endurance contest” (para.
89). In Binnie J.’s words, at para. 89:
The Crown seems to conceive of the police interrogation
as an endurance contest between the detainee, who starts off with the benefit
of the standard police warning and generic advice from his or her lawyer
(presumably to refuse to cooperate — what else can the lawyer advise at that
outset?) and, on the other hand, an experienced police interrogator who wants
to cajole and manoeuvre and wear down the detainee into making incriminating
statements and, if possible, a full confession.
Under our
Constitution the right to counsel enshrined in s. 10(b) is not “spent”
upon its initial exercise following arrest or detention. Nor is its further
exercise subject to the permission of the police officers who deliberately
ignore the detainee’s repeated requests to consult counsel. By persisting
instead with their relentless custodial interrogation, despite the detainee’s
clearly expressed choice not to speak with them, the police flout another
constitutional right — the detainee’s right to silence. Often if not
invariably, they thereby succeed in persuading the detainee that further
attempts to exercise either constitutional right will merely postpone the
inevitable and prove to be in vain.
[178]
Finally, at least in the context of custodial interrogations, nothing in
s. 10(b) renders the effective exercise by detainees of their right to
counsel subject to an “objective” determination by their interrogators
regarding the presence or absence of the factors enumerated by Binnie J. (para.
106). None of these proposed limits on the right to counsel were the subject
of constitutional justification under s. 1 of the Charter . The grounds
proposed by our colleague may well provide helpful guidance in determining
whether evidence obtained in violation of s. 10 (b) should be excluded
under s. 24(2) of the Charter . In our respectful view, however, they do
not bear on the contours or content of the right to counsel itself.
[179]
In short, we do not accept that fresh access to counsel is limited to
situations where the police interrogator is satisfied either that there
has been a material change in circumstances, or that the request is not made in
an effort to delay or distract. As we have shown, this approach is consistent
neither with the text of s. 10(b) itself, nor with its broader purpose.
We also reject this approach on the basis that it focusses on the objective
observations and conclusions of the police, who have the detainee in their
total control, and not on the subjective needs of the accused.
D. Oickle and the Singh-Sinclair Squeeze
[180]
In our view, the approach of the Chief Justice and Charron J., when
coupled with the majority decision in Singh, carries significant and
unacceptable consequences for the administration of criminal justice and the
constitutional rights of detainees in this country.
[181]
The Chief Justice and Charron J. suggest that any residual concerns
regarding the detainee’s inability to consult counsel during a custodial
interrogation can be addressed by an assessment of the voluntariness of the
statement. More specifically, with respect to the detainee’s right to remain
silent, they suggest at para. 60 that the “answer” lies with Singh:
The better approach is to continue to deal with
claims of subjective incapacity or intimidation under the confessions rule. For
example, in R. v. Oickle, 2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3, at para. 61,
the Court recognized that using non‑existent evidence to elicit a
confession runs the risk of creating an oppressive environment and rendering
any statement involuntary. In Singh, the Court stressed that
persistence in continuing the interview, particularly in the face of repeated
assertions by the detainee that he wishes to remain silent, may raise “a strong
argument that any subsequently obtained statement was not the product of a free
will to speak to the authorities” (para. 47). [Emphasis added.]
[182]
We question our colleagues’ assertion that Singh, and the
confessions rule more generally, are capable of dealing with these residual
concerns in any meaningful manner. The reasons of the Chief Justice and Charron
J., we believe, place an over-reliance on the ability of the confessions rule
to provide this residual but essential protection.
[183]
The common law requirement of voluntariness set out in R. v. Oickle,
2000 SCC 38, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 3, was never intended to serve as a substitute for
the constitutional guarantees that concern us here. As Binnie J. amply
demonstrates, it has hardly offered the residual protection it is said by the
Chief Justice and Charron J. to afford. We need only go back to the particular
facts of both Singh and the within appeal to demonstrate why this is
so. Mr. Singh asserted his right to silence 18 times during the course of his
custodial interview. Yet, a majority of the Court concluded that his
inculpatory statement was nevertheless voluntary. Similarly, Mr. Sinclair’s
statement was deemed voluntary by the trial judge, and an appeal against that
finding was abandoned in the Court of Appeal (see reasons of Frankel J.A., at
para. 4) and not further challenged in this Court. Mr. McCrimmon, the
appellant in the companion appeal (R. v. McCrimmon, 2010 SCC 36,
[2010] 2 S.C.R. 402) also challenged the voluntariness of his statement before
both the trial judge and the Court of Appeal. Both courts concluded that his
statement was voluntary.
[184]
With respect, the suggestion of the Chief Justice and Charron J. that
our residual concerns can be meaningfully addressed by way of the
confessions rule thus ignores what we have learned about the dynamics of
custodial interrogations and renders pathetically anaemic the entrenched
constitutional rights to counsel and to silence.
[185]
More broadly, however, the majority opinions in both Singh and
this case project a view of the right to silence that hinges too closely on the
voluntariness of a detainee’s inculpatory statement. This approach ignores the
fact that the right to silence can be breached in a manner other than the
taking by the police of an involuntary statement. As Professor Stewart has
observed, “[t]he right to silence can be violated when the police improperly
persuade the accused to speak, but without any inducement or other factor that
would make the ensuing statement involuntary” (p. 539).
[186]
In our view, a denial of the right to consult counsel, which has the
effect of forcing a detainee to participate in the interrogation until
confession, coupled with the explicit belief on the part of the police that
they are entitled to that confession, has precisely that effect.
[187]
And yet this is not the most troubling consequence of the approach
adopted by the Chief Justice and Charron J.
[188]
The majority held in Singh that detainees who have asserted their
right to silence have no consequent right or power, under either the common law
or the Charter , to prevent the police from relentlessly pursuing their
custodial interrogation. It therefore follows, in their view, that a detainee
cannot be allowed to achieve the same result simply by asserting their s. 10 (b)
right to counsel. They ground this conclusion in a belief that detainees have an
obligation to participate in the investigation against them (reasons of the
Chief Justice and Charron J., at paras. 57-58).
[189]
We rejected this view in Singh and feel bound again to do so
here. The objections we expressed in Singh apply with no less force to
the s. 10(b) right to counsel.
[190]
The majority’s conclusion in Singh that a detainee cannot use the
s. 7 right to silence to cease a custodial interview, and the view of the Chief
Justice and Charron J. in this case that a detainee cannot use s. 10(b)
in this same fashion, in effect creates a new right on the part of the police
to the unfettered and continuing access to the detainee, for the purposes of
conducting a custodial interview to the point of confession. The clear result
is that custodial detainees cannot exercise their constitutional rights in
order to prevent their participation in the investigation against them.
[191]
We note that this expansion of police powers occurs at the expense of Charter
rights. More importantly, it is being accomplished without subjecting the potential
police power to the rigours of the s. 1 justification process, or even the Dedman/Waterfield
test for the recognition of police powers at common law (R. v. Waterfield,
[1963] 3 All E.R. 659 (C.C.A.), and Dedman v. The Queen, [1985] 2 S.C.R.
2). What is more, “this kind of judicial intervention would pre-empt any
serious Charter review of the limits, as the limits would arise out of
initiatives of the courts themselves” (R. v. Orbanski, 2005 SCC 37,
[2005] 2 S.C.R. 3, at para. 81 (per LeBel J., Fish J. concurring)).
Indeed, the Chief Justice and Charron J. subject the limits they impose on s.
10 (b) to no legal or constitutional scrutiny whatsoever.
[192]
Members of this Court have, in recent years, repeatedly questioned the
practice of expanding the scope of police powers by judicial fiat (see, for
example, R. v. Clayton, 2007 SCC 32, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 725 (per
Binnie J., LeBel and Fish JJ. concurring); Orbanski; R. v. Kang-Brown,
2008 SCC 18, [2008] 1 S.C.R. 456 (per LeBel J., Fish, Abella and Charron
JJ. concurring)). The common thread linking these opinions is a concern that
“while Charter rights relating to the criminal justice system were
developed by the common law, the common law would now be used to trump and
restrict them” (Orbanski, at para. 70).
[193]
These concerns have been echoed by appellate courts, as exemplified by
the following passage from the concurring reasons of Jackson J.A. in R. v.
Yeh, 2009 SKCA 112, 337 Sask. R. 1 , at para. 147:
It also goes,
almost without saying, that an expansion of police powers, by judicial decision
alone, precludes any future Charter scrutiny of the increased power, and
is inconsistent with the usual tenor of the evolution of the common law,
which traditionally defends civil liberties and does not infringe them, without
cogent evidence of the need to do so. [Emphasis added.]
We agree.
[194]
We do not question the authority of the courts to expand, narrowly and
only when proven necessary, the scope of police powers. However, we insist
that this authority be exercised explicitly, only in the face of clear evidence
of the need to do so, and in a manner that is shown to be constitutionally
compliant upon a rigorous s. 1 analysis.
[195]
In the view of the Chief Justice and Charron J., it is important to
preserve the ability of the police to properly investigate crimes, and
to use interrogation as an investigative technique. As the Singh
majority held, custodial suspects are not immune from the reach of the police:
What the common law recognizes is the individual’s right to remain
silent. This does not mean, however, that a person has the right not to be
spoken to by state authorities. The importance of police questioning in the
fulfilment of their investigative role cannot be doubted. One can readily
appreciate that the police could hardly investigate crime without putting
questions to persons from whom it is thought that useful information may be
obtained. The person suspected of having committed the crime being investigated
is no exception. Indeed, if the suspect in fact committed the crime, he or she
is likely the person who has the most information to offer about the incident.
Therefore, the common law also recognizes the importance of police interrogation
in the investigation of crime. [Emphasis added; emphasis in original deleted;
para. 28.]
The suspect in a
criminal investigation is to be valued as an important, if not “fruitful”,
source of information (Singh, at para. 45).
[196]
Based primarily on a belief in the need to balance the s. 10(b)
right against the public interest in investigating and solving crimes, in
addition to the perceived practical difficulties associated with exercising the
right to the ongoing assistance of counsel, the position of the Chief Justice
and Charron J., in essence, would therefore limit the right to consult with
counsel to circumstances where some form of material or substantial change in
jeopardy has occurred and the detainee has demonstrated it to the satisfaction
of his interrogators. Otherwise, the ability of the police to investigate
crimes would, in their view, be unduly frustrated and the administration of
justice would, they say, grind to a halt.
[197]
We note again that none of these purported justifications were put
through the rigour of a s. 1 analysis, and are based on nothing more than
speculation. We emphasize the absence of any evidence to support the notion
that allowing detainees to consult with their counsel during the course of a
lengthy custodial interview “would have a ‘devastating impact’ on criminal
investigations anywhere in this country” nor that it would restrain the ambit
of police questioning (Singh, at para. 88). We echo the comments of our
colleague Binnie J. in Clayton, equally applicable here, that the
approach of the Chief Justice and Charron J. “can only add to the problematic
elasticity of common law police powers, and sidestep the real policy debate in
which competing individual and societal interests are required to be clearly
articulated in the established framework of Charter analysis” (para.
61).
[198]
Concerns similar to those expressed by our colleagues were also
expressed some 50 years ago in the United States, prior to and after the
judgment of the United States Supreme Court in Miranda v. Arizona, 384
U.S. 436 (1966). Critics argued that if detainees could insist on having their
lawyers present during their interrogations, the police would no longer be able
to obtain confessions, thereby hindering their ability to solve crimes and
secure convictions.
[199]
Five decades of empirical research have determined that those early
fears were unfounded. Studies addressing the impact of Miranda have
generally suggested that: (1) police officers began complying with Miranda
immediately after it became law; (2) Miranda has not reduced the
percentage of admissions and confessions made to officers; and (3) Miranda
has not decreased the percentage of charges laid by prosecutors or their
success in prosecuting cases. See, for example, Evelle J. Younger, “Results of
a Survey Conducted in the District Attorney’s Office of Los Angeles County
Regarding the Effect of the Miranda Decision upon the Prosecution of Felony
Cases” (1966-1967), 5 Am. Crim. L.Q. 32; Stephen J. Schulhofer, “Miranda’s
Practical Effect: Substantial Benefits and Vanishingly Small Social Costs”
(1996), 90 Nw. U. L. Rev. 500, at p. 547.
[200]
Those early findings have remained essentially undisturbed. The
consensus, save a few dissenting voices, is that Miranda’s effect on
both the rates of confession and conviction has been negligible. The rate of
confession has remained relatively stable, with only a small (one to two
percent) drop post‑Miranda. Similarly, in a recent large‑scale
study, Prof. Schulhofer concluded that “[f]or all practical purposes, Miranda’s
empirically detectable net damage to law enforcement is zero” (p. 547). None
of the commentaries referenced by our colleagues contradict these findings.
Indeed, two of the mentioned authors find that Miranda has inadequately
achieved its intended protection of defendants subjected to custodial
interrogation. As Ronald J. Allen explains:
If the
atmosphere of the jail house is so compelling, if it is powerful enough to
overbear the will to compel confessions to serious felonies by even innocent
people, why will it not compel waivers of the abstract legal rights contained
in the Miranda warnings? In the absence of an explanation of such
matters, one would predict exactly what close to forty years of experience have
demonstrated, which is that Miranda did not make much of a difference.
(“Miranda’s Hollow Core” (2006), 100 Nw. U. L. Rev. 71, at
p. 76)
See also Charles
D. Weisselberg, “Mourning Miranda” (2008), 96 Cal. L. Rev. 1519.
[201]
In concluding that the police conduct in this case violated the
appellant’s s. 10 (b) right to counsel, we take care to make
perfectly clear that we are not advocating the adoption of the American rules
under Miranda. Our purpose here is simply to emphasize that our
colleagues’ fear that the administration of criminal justice would grind to a
halt should custodial detainees be given greater access to counsel is not
supported by the experience in jurisdictions where that very right is in
place. And while the appellant did urge us to find that counsel are entitled
to be present during custodial interrogations, there is no need for us to do
so: Our conclusions rest entirely on the constitutional guarantee of
meaningful and effective access to counsel enshrined in s. 10 (b) of the Charter .
[202]
In our respectful view, the right against self-incrimination and the
right to silence cannot be eroded by an approach to criminal investigations,
and in particular to custodial interrogation, that would favour perceived
police efficiency at the expense of constitutionally protected rights. It is
certain that police interrogation is not of itself a breach of the Charter ,
but the needs of police efficacy do not rank higher than the requirements of
the Charter . We agree with Professor Stewart that the Charter
places minimum demands on investigative techniques:
Since the principle against self-incrimination is part of the structure
of a rights-based system of criminal justice, whatever minimum demands it
places on investigative techniques have to be respected. Any system of justice
that takes the dignity and worth of the individual seriously must uphold some
version of the principle against self-incrimination. [p. 524]
[203]
With respect, we find it difficult to reconcile the view that the right
against self-incrimination ought to be ardently defended, with the suggestion
that suspects who decide to exercise their right to consult with counsel, in
order to meaningfully exercise their right to silence, must nevertheless endure
persistent and sustained custodial interrogation. In our view, the approach of
the Chief Justice and Charron J. does not pass constitutional muster.
[204]
Accordingly, we are concerned lest the reasons of the Chief Justice and
Charron J. be taken to have constitutionalized a police right to the
uninterrupted interrogation of detainees to the point of confession. The
police are not empowered by the common law or by statute, and still less by our
Constitution, to prevent or undermine the effective exercise by detainees of
either their right to silence or their right to counsel, or to compel them
against their clearly expressed wishes to participate in interrogations
until confession. Indeed, “[i]f the exercise of this right is a threat to
our system of justice, then our system of justice, not the right to counsel,
should be openly and honestly questioned” (R. v. Charron (1990), 57
C.C.C. (3d) 248 (Que. C.A.), at p. 254 (per Fish J.A., as he then
was)).
IV. Application
A. The Breach of Section 10 (b)
[205]
Having outlined our view of the purpose and scope of s. 10 (b), we
turn now to the application of this right to the present appeal.
[206]
Prior to his interrogation, Mr. Sinclair had two brief conversations
with his lawyer, each lasting no more than three minutes. Some eight hours
later, his interrogation began. Throughout the course of the custodial
interrogation, Sgt. Skrine was consistent in his denial of Mr. Sinclair’s
requests to consult with counsel.
[207]
Mr. Sinclair requested either to consult with his lawyer or to have his
lawyer present no less than six times throughout the interrogation. Each
request coincided with either the presentation of incriminating evidence, both
real and invented, or a direct accusation on the part of Sgt. Skrine. And in
each instance, Sgt. Skrine either rebuffed the request explicitly, or simply
ignored it and continued his relentless questioning.
[208]
Importantly, several of Mr. Sinclair’s requests for counsel were coupled
with firm assertions of his right to silence. For example, at the outset of
the session, Mr. Sinclair declared, “I’m not saying anything or
talking about anything that’s until my lawyer’s around and he tells me
what’s going on and stuff” (A.R., at p. 542 (emphasis added)).
[209]
Perhaps more troubling is the extent to which Sgt. Skrine believed he
was entitled to Mr. Sinclair’s confession. In his eyes, Mr. Sinclair’s lack of
cooperation — in other words his refusal to confess — meant that he was
treating his interrogation like nothing more than a “game”:
Sinclair: I hear what you’re saying, I got nothing to nothing
to say right now. You’re playing with my mind.
Skrine: You know what Trent? This is not a game.
. . .
There are a
number of people’s lives here that are entirely affected by what you do,
including yourself. Now you’ve got to summon the courage up to look yourself in
that mirror and you decide what person you wanna be, Trent. This is not a
game. And shame on you for turning it into a game.
Sinclair: Not trying to turn anything into a game.
Skrine: Good. ‘Cause Gary GRICE was a human being and he has people
that love him and you have people that love you that are affected by what
you’ve done. You have made decisions in a state that only you can tell me or
make me understand. You have made decisions that have affected all these
people. You now hold decisions in your hand that affect all those people. This
does not go away. You think about that. None of this goes away.
(Door opens
and closes as Sgt. SKRINE exits the room.)
(Door opens
and closes as Sgt. SKRINE re-enters the room.)
Skrine: I had to take a breather, Trent ’cause you
know I leave here and I’m just thinking, obviously I’m not doing a very good
job here. You know. Maybe I’m not doing a good enough job because I’ll tell
ya, the decision is that obvious. Like what are you thinking there right
now? What are you thinking? What’s going through your head? [Emphasis added;
A.R., at p. 615.]
[210]
He suggests that it would be a “mistake” for Mr. Sinclair to continue to
exercise his right to silence:
Skrine: No. Trent, okay, we’re not gonna play
semantics here. I don’t want you to lie to me. We’re past that. You did. All
right? The evidence is overwhelming. Trent and at the end of the day I do not
want you to continue to make mistakes. You have made a mistake. [A.R., at p.
594]
[211]
As this Court held in R. v. Hebert, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 151, at p.
180, if a detainee asserts his or her right to silence and chooses not to
speak, “the state is not entitled to use its superior power to override the
suspect’s will and negate his or her choice”. In our view, Sgt. Skrine did just
that.
[212]
As we have explained, both a straightforward reading and a purposive
interpretation of s. 10 (b) lend themselves to a broad conception of the
right to counsel. The guarantee of l’assistance d’un avocat means more
than a one-time consultation with counsel, specifically when the brief
consultation is followed by a lengthy interrogation, conducted by a skilled and
experienced police interrogator.
[213]
Accordingly, the police’s failure to suspend the interrogation and allow
Mr. Sinclair to consult with counsel, in the face of his numerous
requests, constituted a breach of his right to counsel, guaranteed by s. 10 (b)
of the Charter .
[214]
However, we must also consider whether the incriminating statements made
by Mr. Sinclair to the undercover officer, posing as a fellow inmate, and his
participation in a re-enactment of the murder, were also obtained in violation
of the Charter .
[215]
The Court recently considered the issue of statements made subsequent to
a Charter breach in R. v. Wittwer, 2008 SCC 33, [2008] 2 S.C.R.
235. In Wittwer, the test for admissibility was expressed in the
following terms, at para. 21:
In considering whether a statement is tainted by an
earlier Charter breach, the courts have adopted a purposive and generous
approach. It is unnecessary to establish a strict causal relationship between
the breach and the subsequent statement. The statement will be tainted if the
breach and the impugned statement can be said to be part of the same
transaction or course of conduct: Strachan [R. v. Strachan,
[1988] 2 S.C.R. 980], at p. 1005. The required connection between the breach
and the subsequent statement may be “temporal, contextual, causal or a
combination of the three”: R. v. Plaha (2004), 189 O.A.C. 376, at para.
45. A connection that is merely “remote” or “tenuous” will not suffice: R.
v. Goldhart, [1996] 2 S.C.R. 463, at para. 40; Plaha, at para. 45.
[216]
Like ripples in a pond, Mr. Sinclair’s original confession to Sgt.
Skrine had far-reaching implications. In our view, both Mr. Sinclair’s
statement to the undercover officer and his participation in the re-enactment
were inextricably linked to his original confession. In fact, Mr. Sinclair said
as much to his “cellmate” before confessing to the murder: “They’ve got me, the
body, the sheets, the blood, the fibres on the carpet, witnesses. I’m going
away for a long time but I feel relieved.”
[217]
We therefore find that both the subsequent confession and the
re-enactment were obtained in violation of s. 10 (b) as well.
B. The Remedy: Section 24(2) of the Charter
[218]
Finally, having found a Charter breach, we must now turn to the
question of remedy. The appellant asks that the evidence obtained as a result
of the breach be excluded pursuant to s. 24(2) of the Charter .
[219]
The test for exclusion of evidence under s. 24(2) was recently refined
and restated in R. v. Grant, 2009 SCC 32, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 353,
and R. v. Harrison, 2009 SCC 34, [2009] 2 S.C.R. 494. As the
Court explained, when determining whether the admission of evidence would bring
the administration of justice into disrepute, three factors must be weighed:
(1) the seriousness of the Charter -infringing
state conduct;
(2) the impact of the breach on the Charter -protected
interests of the accused; and
(3) society’s interest in the
adjudication of the case on its merits.
[220]
First, we note the type of evidence at issue — an incriminatory
statement obtained in breach of the Charter . As the Court held in Grant,
although there is no blanket rule for Charter -infringing statements, the
admission of such evidence tends to bring the administration of justice into
disrepute (paras. 90-92). Nevertheless, even in the context of incriminatory
statements, all three factors must be examined.
[221]
Bearing that in mind, we turn first to the seriousness of the state
conduct. We believe that the violation of Mr. Sinclair’s constitutionally
guaranteed right to counsel was significant, and not merely a technical
breach. However, we recognize that Sgt. Skrine was acting in good faith, in
accordance with the law as he (and other courts, for that matter) understood
it. At trial, he was candid about his understanding of the law:
. . . without inquiring further to determine whether or not he was
confused about the advice he received, or if I got that feeling through his
conversation, or if we had some sort of change in jeopardy as we talked through
here, I wouldn’t have necessarily automatically provided that phone call. I
believed that we had met his rights. We had met our obligation at this time.
[A.R., at p. 337]
[222]
Sgt. Skrine’s view of the law was not unjustified, given the undeveloped
jurisprudence in this area. His denial of Mr. Sinclair’s request for counsel
was not malicious or otherwise motivated by bad faith.
[223]
The second factor, however, strongly militates in favour of exclusion of
the incriminating statements. It is almost impossible to imagine a case where
a Charter breach would have a greater impact on the protected
interests of an individual. At a time when his freedom hung in the balance,
Mr. Sinclair was denied access to the legal counsel that he desperately
required.
[224]
As a direct result of this unconstitutional deprivation, Mr. Sinclair
relented in the face of unrelenting questioning and incriminated himself. Had
he been provided with an opportunity to consult counsel, the outcome would
likely have been very different. The impact of the breach, therefore, struck
at the core of our most cherished legal protections: the right to silence and
the protection against self-incrimination.
[225]
Finally, we consider society’s interest in the adjudication of the case
on its merits. The offence at issue here — murder — is of the utmost
severity. So too, however, is the right being protected. While society has an
interest in the adjudication of a case on its merits, sometimes, as is the case
here, that interest will be outweighed by the protection of the most
fundamental rights in the criminal justice system. The right to counsel
guarantees and safeguards the effective exercise of the legal rights that
ensure the fairness of our criminal process.
[226]
Accordingly, we would exclude the evidence pursuant to s. 24(2) of the Charter .
V. Conclusion
[227]
For all of these reasons, we would allow the appeal, set aside the
appellant’s conviction and order a new trial.
Appeal dismissed, Binnie,
LeBel, Fish and Abella JJ. dissenting.
Solicitor for the appellant: Gil D. McKinnon,
Vancouver.
Solicitor for the respondent: Attorney General of British
Columbia, Vancouver.
Solicitor for the intervener the Director of Public Prosecutions of
Canada: Public Prosecution Service of Canada, Winnipeg.
Solicitor for the intervener the Attorney General of
Ontario: Attorney General of Ontario, Toronto.
Solicitors for the intervener the Criminal Lawyers’ Association of
Ontario: Schreck & Greene, Toronto.
Solicitors for the intervener the British Columbia Civil Liberties
Association: McCarthy Tétrault, Vancouver.
Solicitors for the intervener the Canadian Civil Liberties
Association: McCarthy Tétrault, Toronto.